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Stephenson, S.L. 2003: Myxomycetes of New Zealand. Fungi of New Zealand. 3. Fungal Diversity Press.

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Stephenson, S.L. 2003: Myxomycetes of New Zealand. Fungi of New Zealand. 3. Fungal Diversity Press.
Fungi of New Zealand.
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Arcyria affinis Rostaf. 1875
PDD 3614.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, crowded and sometimes more-or-less tangled, 2.0–3.5 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose to subcylindrical, wine-red to dark red but becoming red-brown, 0.5–1.0 mm wide. Stalk cylindrical, erect, up to 1.0 mm long. Hypothallus thin, membranous, colourless. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a rather deep and asymmetrical (or rarely shallow and symmetrical) calyculus. Capillitium consisting of a network of threads 3.5–9.0 µm in diameter and marked with warts, spines, cogs, half-rings and rings, also with a number of ridges that may unite locally to form a reticulum. Spores reddish brown in mass, almost colourless by transmitted light, with a few scattered small warts and sometimes a few groups of larger warts, 7–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from Africa (Ukkola 1998), Australia (Mitchell 1995), Europe (Lado & Pando 1997), and South America (Farr 1976), but not always distinguished from A. incarnata. First reported from New Zealand by Cheeseman & Lister (1911), based on a specimen from Bay of Plenty. Also known from Wellington, Nelson, and Southland.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species has been considered as doubtfully distinct from Arcyria incarnata by some authors, and the two species are certainly very close. The major distinguishing features are differences in the calyculus (deep, funnel-shaped in A. affinis and shallow dish-shaped in A. incarnata) and capillitium (expanding longitudinally to form a long procumbent plume in A. affinis and usually expanding evenly and remaining more or less erect in A. incarnata).
Arcyria cinerea (Bull.) Pers. 1801
PDD 68538, 68544, 68785.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered, gregarious or sometimes united by their fused stalks and occurring in digitate clusters of 2–20 or more sporangia, 0.3–4.0 mm tall. Sporotheca ovate to cylindrical, usually tapering toward the apex, pale grey to light brown, ochraceous or less commonly yellowish brown, 0.1–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, pallid to black, up to 2 mm in length. Hypothallus discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia, transparent and often not evident. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only at the base of the sporotheca, where it forms a rather small, shallow calyculus with a smooth, delicately stippled, finely reticulate inner surface. Capillitium firmly attached to the calyculus, colourless or nearly so by transmitted light, consisting of a network of threads 2–6 µm in diameter and densely covered with small blunt spines (occasionally also with cogs, bands or reticulations). Spores pale grey or light yellow in mass, colourless by transmitted light, with a few scattered warts, 6–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white, less commonly grey or pale yellow.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taupo. Also known from Northland, Auckland, Coromandel, Buller, North Canterbury, South Canterbury, Dunedin, Southland, Stewart Island, and Campbell Island.
Decaying wood, bark, leaf litter, and dung.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This very variable species is relatively common in the field and exceedingly so in moist chamber cultures, especially cultures prepared with samples of leaf litter from broadleaf trees.
Arcyria denudata (L.) Wettst. 1885
PDD 15574, 39309, 48202.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, usually gregarious to crowded but occasionally scattered, 2–6 mm tall. Sporotheca ovate to cylindrical, pinkish red to brick-red but weathering to brown, 0.4–1.2 mm wide. Stalk slender, striate, the same colour as the sporotheca or darker, 0.5–1.5 mm long. Hypothallus either small and inconspicous under individual sporangia or contiguous for a group of sporangia, sometimes silvery but often not evident. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a shallow calyculus, the latter shining, plicate, smooth or nearly so. Capillitium consisting of a network of threads 3–4 µm in diameter and marked with cogs and half-rings, firmly attached to the whole inner surface of the calyculus. Spores red or reddish brown in mass, colourless by transmitted light, with a few scattered warts, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Arcyria punicea) from New Zealand by Colenso (1887), based on a specimen from Hawkes Bay. Also known from Kermadec Islands (Oliver 1911), Auckland, Waikato, Taranaki (Lister & Lister 1905), Wellington, Nelson, South Canterbury (Lister & Lister 1905), Dunedin (Lister & Lister 1905), and Southland.
Decaying wood and (less commonly) bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997).
This is one of the more commonly encountered myxomycetes throughout much of the world. Arcyria incarnata, a very similar species morphologically, can be distinguished by its capillitium, which is loosely attached only to the center of the calyculus and from which it is readily detached.
Arcyria ferruginea Saut. 1841
PDD 15201.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious to crowded, 1–2 mm high. Sporotheca ovoid, not greatly expanding, dull orange to brick-red or brownish red, sometimes weathering to yellowish or greenish brown, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk rugose, dark reddish brown to orange-brown, one-third to one-half the total height of the fruiting body. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, shining, yellow-brown. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter widely funnel-shaped, shallow, shining, plicate, nearly smooth to reticulate on the inside. Capillitium slightly elastic, dense, deciduous at maturity, forming an even, coarse reticulum with the upper filaments 5–8 µm in diameter, and basal filaments more slender, marked with transverse bars, warts, spines, and reticulation. Spores reddish orange in mass, pale ochraceous by transmitted light, minutely warted, 9–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium rose-red or cream-coloured.
Known from Asia, Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976, Yamamoto 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taupo. Also known from Auckland and Bay of Plenty (Cheesman & Lister 1915).
Decaying wood, usually that of conifers.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The orange to reddish-brown colour of the fruiting bodies, relatively large (for an Arcyria) spores, and the coarse threads of the capillitium are the distinguishing features of this species.
Arcyria Hill ex F.H. Wigg. 1780
With the characteristics of the family.
The genus Arcyria contains at least 40 species (Lado 2001), and 14 of these are known from New Zealand.
Arcyria incarnata (Pers. ex J.F. Gmel.) Pers. 1796
PDD 16124, 17596, 18281.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, closely gregarious to crowded but occasionally scattered, 1–2 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical or nearly so, rose to crimson but sometimes weathering to reddish brown (rarely pale violet), 0.5–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk usually short, slender, weak, reddish brown, up to 0.5 mm high. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless and shining, brownish red or dull red, often inconspicuous. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter small, shallow or funnel-shaped, pink, usually plicate, asperulate or minutely spinulose inside. Capillitium greatly expanding in length and strongly elastic, deciduous, consisting of filaments 3–5 µm in diameter, marked with more or less spirally arranged half-ring, cogs, and transverse plates. Spores pink in mass, nearly colourless by transmitted light, marked with a few scattered warts, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen from Stewart Island. Also known from Auckland (Cheesman & Lister 1915), Taupo, Wellington, Nelson, Fiordland, and Southland.
Decaying wood and (less commonly) bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species can be recognized in the field by the combination of the rose to crimson colour of the sporangia, and a capillitium that is strongly elastic and often detached completely from the shallow dish-shaped calyculus in mature specimens.
Arcyria insignis Kalchbr. & Cooke 1882
PDD 48502.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, usually crowded within small, scattered to gregarious clusters but occasionally solitary, 0.5–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca ovoid to cylindrical, bright pink to pale flesh- or salmon-coloured, 0.3–4.0 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, sometimes weak, plicate, reddish, 0.2–4.0 mm long. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, shining, colourless to light brown. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter small, very shallow, pilate, nearly smooth to spinulose or faintly reticulate within. Capillitium densely reticulate, elastic, remaining attached to the calyculus, colourless or nearly so by transmitted light, consisting of filaments 2–3 µm in diameter, sometimes with bulbous free ends, marked with more or less spirally arranged transverse bands and spines, in part minutely spinulose to nearly smooth. Spores pink in mass, colourless by transmitted light, nearly smooth with a few scattered warts, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from South Canterbury. Also known from Auckland and Bay of Plenty.
Decaying wood, particularly small branches; also occurring on herbaceous stems.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Small clusters of bright pink sporangia that typically occur in small clusters distinguish Arcyria insignis from other species in the genus known from New Zealand.
Arcyria leiocarpa (Cooke) Massee 1892
PDD 74940, 74960.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, usually scattered, up to 1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca typically cylindrical but varying to ovate or subglobose, pale grey or ochraceous, 0.4–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, cylindrical, 0.5–1.0 tall, or somewhat darker, filled with spore-like cysts. Hypothallus discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia, sometimes silvery but usually inconspicuous. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter shallow, fluted. Capillitium a loose net of branching and anastomosing, tubular threads, firmly attached, rather weakly elastic, 3–5 µm in diameter, bearing 3–5 usually fairly prominent but sometimes faint spirals, smooth or spiny or in part replaced by spines. Spores grey to ochraceous in mass, nearly colourless by transmitted light, faintly and sparsely warted, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless, turning white before fruiting.
Reported from widely scattered localities in North America, Central America, South America, and Europe (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but not common. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing in moist chamber culture on bark samples of Nothofagus sp. collected in Otago Lakes. Also known from Campbell Island.
Decaying wood, dead leaves, humus-rich soil, the bark of living trees, and dung of herbivorous animals.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Although Arcyria leiocarpa has the general appearance of a typical member of the genus Arcyria, the usually prominent spiral bands on the capillitium are similar to those found in such genera as Hemitrichia and Trichia. For this reason, some authors (e.g., Lado & Pando 1997) prefer to place this species in the genus Hemitrichia as H. leiocarpa. Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991) outlined the reasons for retaining it in Arcyria, which is the concept followed herein.
Arcyria major (G. Lister) Ing 1967
FWVA 12832.
Fruiting body a short-stalked sporangium, often forming large fruitings, individual sporangia crowded, at first bright coral-pink but fading to a dull reddish-brown, 2.5–3.0 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical or nearly so. Stalk reddish brown, short, up to 0.3 mm tall. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, silvery. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter shallow, funnel-shaped, with a smooth margin, pleated, the inner surface covered with large papillae. Capillitium very elastic, often forming a greatly expanded plume 5–6 mm long, the latter usually decumbent, 2.5–3.0 µm in diameter, decorated with half rings arranged spirally. Spores rose coloured in mass, almost colourless in transmitted light, densely but very minutely warted, with groups of larger warts, 7.5–9.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from widely scattered localities in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America (Yamamoto 1998, Ing 1999). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but represented by a specimen collected on Campbell Island.
Dead herbaceous stalks, twigs, and leaves.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Some authors (e.g, Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) have considered what is recognized herein as Arycria major to represent only a variety of A. insignis, but others (e.g., Nannenga-Bremekamp 1991, Ing 1999) have indicated that these two forms appear morphologically distinct enough to be regarded as separate species. Arcyria major is not a common species, and the specimen from New Zealand appears to be the first time it has been collected in the Southern Hemisphere.
Arcyria minuta Buchet 1927 [1928]
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, crowded and often occurring in large groups, 1.0–3.0 mm tall. Sporotheca ovate to cylindrical, pinkish red to brick-red but weathering to brown, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, striate, the same colour as the sporotheca or darker, 0.5–1.5 mm long. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a shallow calyculus, the latter almost flat, pleated. Capillitium consisting of a network of threads 3–5 µm in diameter. and profusely marked with cogs, half-rings, and partial reticulations, firmly attached to the whole inner surface of the calyculus. Spores red or reddish brown in mass, colourless by transmitted light, densely and very palely minutely warted, with dispersed larger warts, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from Europe (Ing 1999), Africa (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), and Australia (Mitchell 1995) but not common. First reported (as A. carnea) from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from South Canterbury/Dunedin.
Decaying wood, usually that of fallen branches.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Arcyria minuta is more difficult to define than is the case for most members of the genus Arcyria. It has been confused with several other species (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Neubert & Nannenga-Bremekamp 1976), thus making its world distribution uncertain. The species can be distinguished from similar species of Arcyria known to occur in New Zealand on the basis of having a capillitium profusely marked with irregular cogs, half rings, and partial reticulations.
Arcyria obvelata (Oeder) Onsberg 1979 [1978]
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, crowded, initially 1.5–2.0 mm tall but expanding to 4–12 mm. Sporotheca cylindrical, bright to pale yellow, fading to pale ochraceous or beige (rarely with pale flesh-coloured tints), 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk weak, slender, beige or yellow, usually very short. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter small, shallow, flaccid, translucent, spiny-reticulate on the inner surface. Capillitium strongly elastic, deciduous, flaccid and drooping, consisting of filaments 3–4 µm in diameter, sculptured with half-rings, spines, and fragmentary reticulations. Spores pale yellow in mass, nearly colourless by transmitted light, 6–8 µm in diameter, nearly smooth but with a few scattered warts. Plasmodium watery white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Arcyria flava) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taranaki. Also known from Auckland, Bay of Plenty (Cheesman & Lister 1915), Dunedin, Southland, and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The pale yellow colour and greatly expanding (to the point of becoming “fluffy” in mature specimens) capillitium make Arcyria obvelata an easy species to recognise in the field. This species is listed as A. nutans in most taxonomic treatments of the myxomycetes
Arcyria oerstedii Rostaf. 1875
PDD 6340, 16248.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, clustered to crowded, initially up to 2 mm high but expanding to 4–10 mm. Sporotheca cylindrical, curved or drooping at maturity, dull crimson to brownish, rarely bright rose or fading to dingy yellowish, 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk usually crowded, short, weak. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless and often not evident. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter obconic, plicate, faintly reticulate and papillose on the inner surface. Capillitium strongly elastic, deciduous, forming a relatively large-meshed reticulum of filaments 3–5 µm in diameter, often with numerous bulbous enlargements, densely spiny, with the larger spines up to 3 µm long. Spores red in mass, pale red or ochraceous by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white, turning rosy before fruiting.
Known from Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Mitchell 1995). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937) based on specimens collected in South Canterbury and Dunedin. Also known from Auckland.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The conspicuous spines on the capillitium are distinctive and allow this species to be readily distinguished from any of the other members of the genus Arcyria.
Arcyria pomiformis (Leers) Rostaf. 1875
Fruiting body a stalked to nearly sessile sporangium, scattered to clustered (rarely crowded or in fascicles of 2 or 3), up to 2 mm high. Sporotheca globose to irregularly ovoid (rarely broadly cylindrical or narrowed in the middle), mostly yellow but varying to ochraceous, beige, light brown, or greenish, 0.3–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk slender to moderately thick, smooth, sometimes weak, pallid to dark brown, one-third to one-half the total height of the fruiting body. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter shallow, plicate, marked with coarse papillae and partial reticulations. Capillitium elastic, persistent, open, expanding laterally and longitudinally, consisting of filaments 3–6 µm in diameter, frequently with swellings, expanded junctions, and occasionally with clavate or rounded free ends, marked with cogs, transverse bands, and spines, the latter sometimes connected by ridges. Spores yellow to ochraceous in mass, faintly yellow to colourless by transmitted light, nearly smooth with a few scattered warts or delicately warted over large areas, 6–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Mitchell 1995, Ukkola 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury. Also known from Auckland, North Canterbury, and the Auckland Islands.
Decaying wood, sometimes occurring on the bark of living trees.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
In most instances, Arcyria pomiformis can be easily recognised by its yellow color, the more or less ovoid shape of the sporotheca, and the evenly expanding and conspicuously wide-meshed capillitium. However, some specimens may resemble A. cinerea. Farr (1962) compared the morphological features of A. pomiformis and A. cinerea in considerable detail and concluded that the most reliable feature that could be used to separate the two species was the ornamentation of the inner surface of the calyculus (smooth to faintly punctate or reticulate in A. cinerea and marked with coarse warts and partial reticulations in A. pomiformis).
Arcyria stipata (Schwein.) Lister 1894
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, crowded and usually more or less superimposed, 1.5–3.0 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, in fresh collections copper-coloured or reddish brown, metallic, often with lavender or rose tints, changing to deep ochraceous or brown with age, 0.5–0.6 in diameter. Stalk 0.1–1.5 mm tall, dark brown, hollow, the interior filled with spore like cysts. Hypothallus dark brown, contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium persistent, especially where it is in contact with adjacent sporangia, eventually fugacious elsewhere and leaving a shallow calyculus, the latter usually shallow but sometimes deep, pleated or smooth. Capillitium attached at the base, somewhat elastic, forming a loose net, with bulbous thickenings and numerous free ends, the upper part often breaking way with the peridium, the threads 3–5 µm wide, bearing 3 or 4 spirals, these more less intermixed with spines, cogs, half-rings or occasional rings and reticulations. Spores pallid, minutely roughened, sometimes with occasional larger warts, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow, becoming white, then rosy as fruiting occurs.
Reported from localities throughout Asia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species is easily recognised by the densely crowded or heaped copper-coloured sporangia with a more persistent peridium than is typical for members of the genus Arcyria. In temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, A. stipata fruits later in the season than most other species of Arcyria.
Arcyria virescens G. Lister 1921
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, crowded or clustered, often occurring in large colonies, up to 4 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, dull green, fading to greenish ochraceous, 0.2–0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, dark olive-green, 0.5–1.5 mm high, with few or no spore-like cells inside, free or adherent in groups of 2–10. Hypothallus[ital] inconspicuous. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a distinct calyculus, the latter small, narrow, funnel-shaped, reticulate and spinuose on the inner surface. Capillitium a loose elastic network of greenish yellow threads, free from the cup and expanding into a column up to 10 mm long and 1 mm wide, the threads 5–6 µm in diameter, marked with scattered groups of close-set, prominent, sharp-edged transverse ridges 3–5 µm high, arranged in an open spiral, the remaining surface obscurely reticulate and roughened with delicate spines. Spores yellowish green in mass, pale yellow in transmitted light, nearly smooth, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Apparently most common in Asia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and also known from Australia (Mitchell 1995). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on specimens collected in South Canterbury and Dunedin.
Decaying wood
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969).
The dull green color of Arcyria virescens is distinctive. This species appears to have a distribution that is largely tropical or subtropical. As such, its occurrence in southern New Zealand would seem surprising. It is possible that these reports were based upon misidentification of specimens that actually represented some other species (e.g., A. obvelata). However, since there is no way to determine whether or not this was the case, the occurrence of A. virescens in New Zealand, albeit somewhat problematic, cannot be dismissed.
Arcyriaceae Rostaf. ex Cooke 1877
Fruiting body a sessile or stalked sporangium or sometimes plasmodiocarpous. Sporotheca subcylindrical to ovoid or globose. Stalk usually relatively short and sometimes absent, often filled with smooth, spore-like cells. Hypothallus membranous, discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia but often inconspicuous. Peridium thin, fugacious above, the lower portion typically persisting as calyculus; the latter cup-like, saucer-like or funnel-shaped, sometimes pleated, smooth or with warts or papillae on the inner surface. Capillitium netted, elastic, frequently expanding to more than twice the original height of the sporotheca after dehiscence, either attached to both the base and sides of calyculus and tending to remain in place or merely to the center of the calyculus at the junction of the stalk and then breaking away freely, variously ornamented with half-rings, cogs, warts, spines, rings, reticulations or inconspicuous or sometimes well-developed spiral bands. Spores some shade of red or yellow to pale grey in mass.
The family contains two genera, but one of these (Cornuvia) is rather rare and has not been recorded from New Zealand.
Badhamia apiculospora (Härk.) Eliasson & N. Lundq. 1979
None in PDD
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or sometimes forming short plasmodiocarps), crowded, 0.2–0.5 mm in diameter, globose to subglobose, white, off-white or grey. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer heavily encrusted with lime, nearly smooth to rugose, inner layer membranous. Capillitium dense, irregular network of calcareous tubules, sometimes massed at the center of the sporotheca to form a pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, pale violaceous brown by transmitted light, ovoid to ellipsoidal, smooth but with a prominent longitudinal ridge, 10–6 by 9–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or cream coloured.
Reported from Europe and North America but apparently uncommon (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimen from Wellington.
Decaying leaves, old straw, and the dung of herbivorous animals
Härkönen (1978), Lado (1999).
The spores of Badhamia apiculospora are distinctive. Few other species of myxomycetes have smooth spores, and the longitudinal ridge that extends around only one half of the spore is unique for the group
Badhamia Berk. 1853
Fruiting body a sessile or stalked sporangium or more rarely a plasmodiocarp. Stalk, if present, ranging from membranous and weak to sturdy and cylindrical, often containing lime, rarely branched. Peridium usually consisting of a single layer but in some species made up of two layers, containing globular lime granules. Columella present or absent. Capillitium a network of tubules completely filled with lime or more rarely interrupted by very short limeless portions. Spores free or in clusters, in the latter case often pyriform, smooth on the inside and warted on the outside, dark brown to black in mass. Approximately 30 species of Badhamia have been described (Lado 2001), seven of which are known from New Zealand. In general, fruitings of many of the more common species of Badhamia tend to be associated with bark. The distinction between this genus and Physarum is not always absolute.
Badhamia capsulifera (Bull.) Berk. 1853
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (occasionally with a weak, strand-like stalk) or somewhat plasmodiocarpous, clustered to gregarious or in small colonies, globose or obovoid, greyish white or greenish white from spores within or pure white when empty, 0.5–1.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus usually prominent, consisting of one or more white to brown membranes that are contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, translucent, covered with a limy network. Stalk, when present, membranous, weak, yellow or straw coloured. Capillitium consisting of a rather open network of thin, calcareous tubules, scarcely expanded at the nodes, white. Spores black in mass, purplish brown by transmitted light, adhering in firm clusters of mostly 6–20, broadly ovate, warted or bluntly spiny on the exposed surface and elsewhere smooth or nearly so, 11–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium chrome yellow.
Bark of dead branches, sometimes while still attached to a living tree
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species can be recognized on the basis of the clustered spores and the thin, iridescent peridium.
Badhamia foliicola Lister 1897
PDD 3652, DWM 3078, 3103
Fruiting body a sporangium, sessile or stalked (or sometimes forming short plasmodiocarps), gregarious–crowded. Sporotheca subglobose or ellipsoid, 0.5–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, short, weak, yellowish. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, rugulose, sparingly calcareous, iridescent grey, white or hyaline when empty. Columella absent. Capillitium a uniform network of slender, delicate, limy or nearly limeless tubules. Spores free, yellow-brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 11–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellowish white to yellow or orange.
This species is known from North America, Europe, Asia, and Australia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens collected in Wellington and North Canterbury
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
The fruiting bodies of Badhamia foliicola tend to be smaller than those of most other species in the genus. Moreover, none of the other species with small fruiting bodies is characterized by free spores and a peridium with relatively little lime present.
Badhamia macrocarpa (Ces.) Rostaf. 1874
PDD 63095, 68790.
Fruiting body a sporangium, sessile or short-stalked, scattered or crowded. Sporotheca subglobose or subannulate, varying to subplasmodiocarpous, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, yellow, darker at the base, furrowed, erect or submembranous and recumbent. Hypothallus scanty. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, rugose, sometimes sparingly calcareous, white above and often yellowish or brownish white below, hyaline when empty. Columella limy, with large nodes, often somewhat physaroid. Spores free, dark violaceous brown by transmitted light, finely but densely and somewhat irregularly warted, 11–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or yellow.
Known from Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Mitchell 1995). Not reported in print from New Zealand but represented by specimens collected in Wellington and Fiordland.
Leaf litter, dead bark, and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This apparently rather variable species (Farr 1976) can be distinguished from other members of the genus Badhamia known from New Zealand on the basis of the white peridium and the free, densely warted spores.
Badhamia melanospora Speg. 1880
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, gregarious or clustered, globose or ovate, umbilicate below, white or grey. Sporotheca 0.5–0.7 mm in diameter and up to 2 mm tall. Hypothallus membranous, yellow-brown, usually scanty and often inconspicuous. Peridium thin, translucent, pure white, sparsely flecked with white, calcarous nodules. Stalk, when present, delicate, thin, pale straw-yellow or pink, sulcate, more or less twisted, usually short but sometimes as much as twice the height of the sporotheca. Capillium delicate, the tubes of uniform diameter throughout except at the centre, where they may be massed to form a pseudocolumella. Spores free, globose or sometimes angular, dark brown by transmitted light, closely and irregularly warted, usually with clusters of darker warts, and with a coarse network of 1–6 meshes to the hemisphere covering the surface, 12–16 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Widely distributed in arid regions of the world and particularly common in the deserts of North America (Blackwell & Gilbertson 1984), where it is often abundant on dead cacti. First reported from New Zealand by Stephenson (2003), based on a specimen from Auckland.
Various types of plant debris, especially that of succulent plants.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
Badhamia melanospora is a rather variable species, but fruitings with long-stalked sporangia are not likely to be confused with those of any other species of Badhamia. The reticulate spores are distinctive. The specimen upon which the New Zealand record is based was collected from a decaying frond of nikau palm. This species is listed as B. gracilis in most earlier treatments of the myxomycetes.
Badhamia nitens Berk. 1853
DWM 3090, 3186
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (sometimes with a weak, procumbent, strand like stalk or occasionally plasmodiocarpous), gregarious or closely crowded, globose or depressed globose, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer yellow or greenish yellow or dull green, somewhat iridescent in forms with scanty lime, the inner layer hyaline, iridescent, tending to be more persistent than the outer layer. Columella absent. Capillitium yellow or dull orange to dingy white, delicate, somewhat thickened at the nodes and then approaching a physaroid condition. Spores in compact clusters of 4–20 (but mostly 6–12), violaceus brown? In transmitted light, coarsely warted on the exposed area, more finely warted elsewhere, pyriform, 12–14 by 11–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
Known from Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976) but not common. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing in moist chamber cultures on bark of Populus nigra and Hoheria sp. The bark samples were collected in Bay of Plenty and North Canterbury. Also known from Campbell Island.
Decaying wood and bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999)
No other species of Badhamia is as brightly coloured as B. nitens, and older specimens in which the colour has faded can be recognized by their clustered spores (with only 4–20 spores per cluster).
Badhamia utricularis (Bull.) Berk. 1853
PDD 3653, 16182.
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, clustered, globose to ovate or obpyriform, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk beige or yellow or reddish brown, weak, branched, often prostrate. Hypothallus membranous, brown to ochraceous, gradually merging into the stalks. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, smooth to rugulose or netted, blue grey or iridescent violet or cinereous, hyaline or white when the spores have been dispersed. Columella absent. Capillitium delicate, consisting of calcareous tubules of a more or less uniform diameter, white. Spores dull blackish brown in mass, bright violet brown by transmitted light, loosely aggregated into clusters that readily break apart, warted, 10–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Macbride (1926), based on a specimen cited without naming a specific locality. Known from Wellington, Buller, and the Auckland Islands.
Dead bark of decaying logs; often associated with old sporocarps of wood-decaying fungi.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Brekemap (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This is the most common species of Badhamia in New Zealand. The often somewhat pendent sporangia on thin strand-like stalks and with an iridescent peridium are not likely to be confused with any other species in the genus
Calomyxa metallica (Berk.) Nieuwl. 1916
DWM 3081, 3162, 3177
Fruiting body a sessile (or sometimes subsessile) sporangium (occasionally somewhat plasmodiocarpous), widely scattered to densely gregarious or firmly clustered, globose to pulvinate, 0.2–1.0 mm in diameter. Peridium membranous, rugulose, dull to shiny or iridescent yellow, coppery, or grey, translucent or encrusted with glandular material. Capillitium abundant, elastic, consisting of long, flexuous or coiled, simple or sparsely branched, solid, dull yellow or grey filaments 0.5–1.0 µm(occasionally as much as 2.0 µm) in diameter, with few attachments to the peridium, marked by a row of minute tubercules arranged in a long spiral. Spores dull yellow or pinkish grey in mass, nearly colourless by transmitted light, delicately warted to spiny, 8–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Lado 1994) and also known from Africa (Ukkola 1998), Australia (Mitchell 1995), and South America (Farr 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing on bark samples placed in moist chamber culture. The samples were collected in Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and North Canterbury.
Decaying wood or the bark of living trees
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species commonly appears on bark samples placed in moist chamber cultures but is rarely collected in the field.
Calomyxa Nieuwl. 1916
Fruiting body a sessile or subsessile sporangium or a plasmodiocarp, globose to pulvinate. Peridium single, membranous, translucent or occasionally encrusted with granular material. Capillitium consisting of long, slender, coiled or flexuous, solid, minutely tuberculate filaments attached basally and, infrequently, to the peridium.
The genus Calomyxa contains two species (Lado 2001), one of which is known from New Zealand.
Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa (O.F. Müll.) T. Macbr. 1899
SPECIMENS EXAMINED: PDD 54495, 68480, 68608
Fruiting body unlike that of other myxomycetes, typically consisting of a series of erect, simple or branched columns but sometimes taking the form of a poroid or effused crust, usually white but sometimes pink or pale yellow to yellowish green, often 10 cm or more in extent, with the individual columns up to 10 mm high. Spores attached individually by threadlike stalks, white in mass, hyaline by transmitted light, smooth, typically somewhat variable in size and shape, mostly ovoid or elliptical but sometimes globose, 6–7 x 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery and translucent, colourless or occasionally pale yellow (rarely somewhat pink, very pale orange, or light green).
Apparently cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), but uncommon or absent at high latitudes and high elevations where woody substrates are lacking (Stephenson et al. 2000). First reported (as Ceratium hydnoides) from New Zealand by Cooke (1879), based on specimens collected in South Canterbury/Dunedin. Cooke also listed Ceratium fuscum and C. roseum, both of which were described as species new to science, in the same publication. Both are now regarded as nothing more than morphological variants of Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa and thus have been reduced to synonyms of the latter species. Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa known from Auckland, Coromandel, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Taupo, Wellington, Gisborne, Nelson, Buller, Westland, Fiordland, Otago Lakes, Southland, Stewart Island, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Island, but the species undoubtedly occurs in every part of New Zealand.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This is one of the most distinctive, abundant, and widespread myxomycetes in the forests of New Zealand. During the summer months, after a period of rainy weather, it can be found on all types of coarse woody debris. Lado (2001) indicated that the correct name for this species is Famintzinia fruticulosa, since the generic name Famintzinia antedates Ceratiomyxa and thus has priority over it. However, Ceratiomyxa is retained in the present work because this name is still the one used in other reference works currently available for the myxomycetes.
Ceratiomyxa J. Schröt. 1889
Fruiting body consisting of a system of usually erect, simple or branched columns, but sometimes taking the form of a poriod or branched crust like structure, usually white or pale. Hypothallus thin, membranous, effused, colourless or white when dusted with spores, sometimes nearly imperceptible. Capillitium, columella, and peridium absent. Spores borne individually on stalk like protuberances, these occurring over the surface of the entire fruiting body, smooth, usually colourless or very pale.

Fruiting body a series of erect, simple or branched columns, usually white. Spores attached individually by thread-like stalks. A single species in New Zealand.

Note that only those species listed below have images or descriptions available through the Virtual Mycota.

Clastoderma A. Blytt 1880
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium. Sporotheca globose, brown, small (usually no more than 0.1–0.2 mm in diameter). Stalk dark, filled with granular material. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium wholly persistent or partly remaining in the form of a basal collar. Columella ranging from extremely short to about one-half the height of the sporotheca. Capillitium thread-like, branched, with some expanded portions near the extremities. Spores brown in mass.

Fruiting body a tiny stalked sporangium, with a dark stalk. Fruiting body small, less than 0.5 mm tall, delicate, stalked. Spore mass brown. A single species in New Zealand.

Note that only those species listed below have images or descriptions available through the Virtual Mycota.

Clastoderma debaryanum A. Blytt 1880
PDD 17615, 68479, 68802
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, usually scattered, 1.0–1.3 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect or slightly nodding, light brown, 0.1–0.2 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, filled with granular material below but translucent and brown above, with the two portions usually separated by a prominent oval swelling. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies only as a basal collar. Columella short or absent. Capillitium arising from the apex of the columella or the base of the sporotheca and consisting of a network of pale brown threadlike elements, with some of the extremities expanded to form small platelets. Spores bright rosaceous-brown in mass, pallid by transmitted light, covered with small warts, 8–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium at first watery white and then becoming darker with age.
Probably cosmopolitan and often abundant in the tropics (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen collected in Bay of Plenty. Also known from Auckland, Dunedin, Southland, and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood or bark; sometimes occurring on old, weathered sporocarps of perennial fungi and also not uncommon on the bark of living trees in moist chamber culture.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species is probably more common in New Zealand than available records would indicate, but it is easily overlooked as a result of the small size of the fruiting bodies. Most descriptions of Clastoderma debaryanum mention the presence of peridial fragments that remain attached to the tips of capillitial branches. Frederick et al. (1986) reported that these structures are actually portions of the capillitium.
Collaria arcyrionema (Rostaf.) Nann.-Bremek. ex Lado 1991
FWVA 9537
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered or gregarious, 1.0–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect, 0.4–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, rigid, black, two-thirds to three-quarters the total height. Hypothallus ranging from inconspicuous to contiguous for a group of sporangia, membranous, colourless to brown. Peridium persistent, membranous, silvery grey or iridescent bronze, persisting at the base of the sporotheca as a collar after the upper portion has broken away, dehiscence irregular. Columella cylindrical, slender, attaining one-third to one-half the height of the sporotheca and there dividing into two or more thick branches that by further division give rise to capillitium. Capillitium dense, with curled branches, these anastomosing and often leaving few free ends. Spores black in mass, violaceous grey by transmitted light, minutely punctate, sometimes with darker clusters, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Reported as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but apparently absent at high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but recorded from Wellington.
Decaying wood; less commonly occurring on leaf litter and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
Collaria arcyrionema can be recognised by the combination of a silvery peridium and an intricate, coiled capillitium. This species is listed as Lamproderma arcyrionema in all but the most recent treatments of the myxomycetes.
Collaria elegans (Racib.) Dhillon & Nann.-Bremek. ex Ing 1982
DWM 3138
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious to scattered, 1 to 2 mm tall. Sporotheca globose to ovate, erect, purplish or liliaceous brown, 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Stalk slender, subulate, 0.8–1.6 mm long. Peridium silvery, fugacious, rarely persistent. Columella short, divided below the center of the sporotheca (or sometimes at, or occasionally below the base) into several stout branches that give rise to the capillitium. Capillitium rather loose, the threads flexuous, slender, anastomosing. Spores reddish brown or pale to reddish lilac in mass, pale violaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely punctate, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Reported from widely scattered localities in Asia, Europe, North America, and South Africa (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing in moist chamber culture prepared with bark of Pinus sp. collected in Taupo/Bay of Plenty.
Decaying wood, especially that of conifers.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
This species, which is placed in the genus Comatricha by some authors, is similar morphologically to Comatricha nigra but can be distinguished on the basis of a columella that becomes divided to form several stout branches before reaching the center of the sporotheca. In C. nigra, the columella extends well beyond the center of the sporotheca. Moreover, Collaria elegans tends to be much less common than Comatricha nigra.
Collaria Nann.-Bremek. 1967
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium. Stalk consisting of an interlaced system of fibres, the upper portion usually opaque. Hypothallus usually small, discoid but sometimes contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium fugacious or rather persistent and always leaving a collar around the stalk, to which the capillitium may be attached. Columella reaching to about the middle of the sporotheca. Capillitium with flexuose branches, these arising mostly from the apex of the columella but sometimes also from along the sides of the columella, branches dividing and anastomosing into an internal net, usually with free ends at the surface. Spores usually black to deep purple brown or rarely pinkish brown.
Five species of Collaria have been described (Lado 2001), only two of which are known from New Zealand.
Colloderma G. Lister 1910
Fruiting body a sessile (or rarely short-stalked) sporangium. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer gelatinous at first and then drying to become hard and brittle, the inner layer membranous, firm, sometimes with granular inclusions. Columella absent. Capillitium radiating from the base of the sporangium, forming a network, consisting of branching and anastomosing, slender, hyaline to dark filaments. Spores dark.
The genus Colloderma contains four species (Lado 2001), only one of which is known from New Zealand.
Colloderma oculatum (C. Lippert) G. Lister 1910
None in PDD
Fruiting body a sessile (or rarely short-stalked) sporangium or sometimes plasmodiocarpous, scattered to gregarious, 0.3–1.0 mm in diameter. Hypothallus membranous, dark brown or brownish purple. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer, when moist, thick, gelatinous, hyaline, sometimes more or less encrusted with olivaceous granules, olivaceous or purple brown, glossy, shrinking and becoming horny when dry, the inner layer membranous, firm, colourless, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium a network of hyaline, brown or purple threads arising from the base of the sporangium, 2–4 µm thick at the base, very slender and colourless at the tips, often surrounded by a broken hyaline sheath or bearing dark accretions. Spores black in mass, smoky grey by transmitted light, spiny, 11.0–12.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium purplish brown.
Widely distributed in Europe and also known from Asia and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury.
Decaying wood with a cover of bryophytes present; also bark of living trees.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (2000), Ing (1999).
The gelatinous outer layer of the peridium, within which the remainder of the fruiting body appears to be embedded, is distinctive. This species is almost invariably associated with bryophytes.
Comatricha alta Preuss 1851
PDD 48186.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, typically occurring in small clusters, 3–6 mm tall. Sporotheca long-ovate to short cylindrical or rarely almost globose, rounded at the apex and base, erect, dark brown, up to 0.6 mm in diameter. Hypothallus discoid or continuous under a group of sporangia, red brown. Stalk usually several times longer than the length of the sporotheca, black and usually opaque, except at the base. Peridium fugacious. Columella almost or completely reaching to the apex of the sporotheca, blunt and sometimes a little widened at the end. Capillitium abundant, brown, connected to the columella predominantly at the base, threads branched and forming wavy loops, hardly anastomosing, with some free, swollen ends, mainly at the base of the sporotheca. Spores black in mass, lilac brown in transmitted light, 7.5–9.0 µm in diameter, with a small round or oval, pale area and covered with very small pale warts. Plasmodium translucent white.
Widespread in Europe (Ing 1999) and also reported from Asia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen collected in Bay of Plenty. Also known from Dunedin.
Decaying wood and bark.
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
No other species of Comatricha found in New Zealand has a capillitium that expands and falls away from the columella. Comatricha alta has not always been distinguished from C. nigra, so its worldwide distribution is incompletely known.
Comatricha laxa Rostaf. 1874
PDD 16703, 68818, DWM 3079
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, usually 1.0–3.5 mm tall but sometimes smaller. Sporotheca subglobose to ovate or short-cylindrical, erect, purplish or reddish brown, becoming paler as the spores are shed, up to 0.4 mm in diameter. Stalk black, shining, often short, usually less than one-half the total height, but in forms with a globose sporotheca reaching two-thirds the total height, tapering from an expanded base. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium fugacious. Columella erect, rigid, usually reaching nearly to the apex of the sporotheca, rarely shorter and forking in globose forms. Capillitium open, arising from all parts of the columella, the primary branches more or less horizontal, with few anastomoses and many short, free tips. Spores deep reddish brown in mass, greyish brown or liliaceous by transmitted light, minutely and irregularly warted, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery-white.
Probably cosmopolitan (Ing 1999), but most records are from temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing in moist chamber cultures on bark of Populus nigra collected in North Canterbury. Also known from Auckland and Wairarapa.
Decaying wood, leaf litter and other types of plant debris; also appearing on tree bark in moist chamber cultures.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The more or less horizontal primary branches of the capillitium distinguish Comatricha laxa from other species of Comatricha characterized by a short stalk and an ovoid to short cylindrical sporotheca
Comatricha nigra (Pers. ex J.F. Gmel.) J. Schröt. 1885 [1889]
PDD 4571, 48224, CHSC 49798
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 1-8 mm tall. Sporotheca globose to ovate (rarely short cylindrical), erect, black or dark brown, up to 0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk black, hairlike, relatively long, usually two to six times the diameter of the sporotheca. Hypothallus membranous, scanty, red. Peridium fugacious. Columella reaching to the middle or the upper part of the sporotheca, there merging into the capillitium. Capillitium an intricate network of slender, flexuous, branching and anastomosing purplish brown threads. Spores black in mass, dark violaceous by transmitted light, faintly warted to nearly smooth, 9–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless and then white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen cited without giving a specific locality. Also known from Auckland, North Canterbury, South Canterbury, Otago Lakes, Dunedin, and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood; also appearing on tree bark in moist chamber cultures
Martin & Alexopoulous (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
In the field, the combination of a small globose sporotheca on a long, slender stalk makes this an easy species to recognise. Specimens appearing in moist chamber cultures are more difficult to characterize and presumably represent a compex of forms that intergrade morphologically.
Comatricha Preuss 1851
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium. Sporotheca spherical to cylindrical. Stalk usually at least half of the total height, consisting of intertwined fibres at least at the base, sometimes hollow. Hypothallus membranous, ranging from inconspicuous to contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium usually fugacious, sometimes leaving flakes or a small collar around the stalk. Columella reaching from at least half way or often all of the way to the apex of the sporotheca. Capillitium of thread-like tubules, connected the columella along its whole length, branched, usually without expansions and forming an internal net, sometimes with a net on the surface which also may be fragmentary, usually with loops or with free ends on the periphery. Spores in mass usually dark brown.
Approximately 35 species of Comatricha have been described worldwide (Lado 2001); five of these are known from New Zealand.
Comatricha pulchella (C. Bab.) Rostaf. 1876
PDD 3608B, BPI 822121.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious or sometimes crowded, 0.7–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca ovate to cylindrical, acuminate, erect, pale brown or ferruginous, up to 0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk black, usually shorter than the sporotheca, rarely half the total height. Hypothallus thin, membranous, either discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium fugacious. Columella straight, tapering, reaching almost to the apex. Capillitium dense, flexuous, dark brown, with many rather robust main branches that develop successively smaller, freely anastomosing branches and with few free ends. Spores brown in mass, pale lilac-brown by transmitted light, minutely but uniformly punctate, 6.5–8.0 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white or colourless.
Widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and also known from Africa and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Comatricha pulchella var. fusca) from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from Dunedin. Also known from Mid Canterbury.
Dead wood, leaf litter, and other types of plant debris
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
Comatricha pulchella is rather similar morphologically to C. laxa, but the capillitium of the former has many anastomoses and few free ends, while that of the latter has few anastomoses and numerous free ends. Moreover, sporangia of C. laxa are darker in colour than those of C. pulchella.
Comatricha vineatilis Nann.-Bremek. 1989
DWM 5464.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 1.5–2.0 mm tall. Sporotheca subcylindrical, with a rounded apex, slightly wider at the base, dark brown, up to 0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk black, opaque, attenuate upwards, 0.5 mm long. Hypothallus discoid to contiguous for a group of sporangia, membranous, pale brown. Peridium fugacious. Columella ending just below the apex of the sporotheca. Capillitium more or less perpendicular to the columella and arising along its whole length, dark brown, flexuose, branching 3–5 times, with few anastomoses except just below the periphery, where the peripheral threads form short, outward-pointing, sometimes forked branchlets. Spores medium-dark brown in mass, light brown in transmitted light, very densely and minutely warted, with some indistinct clusters of warts, 9–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
This species was described originally from Europe (Nannenga-Bremekamp (1989). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but appearing in a moist chamber culture prepared with bark samples of Metrosideros umbellata collected on Stewart Island.
Bark of living trees.
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1989).
Representatives of the genus Comatricha commonly appear in moist chamber cultures prepared with samples of bark from living trees, and several species are known only from this microhabitat. Comatricha vineatilis appears to be one example of this special ecological group of myxomycetes. The collection from New Zealand apparently represents the first record of the species from the Southern Hemisphere.
Craterium aureum (Schumach.) Rostaf. 1874
PDD 74402, 75478.
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, gregarious to scattered, 0.7–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose to ellipsoidal to obovate, erect, golden yellow to rarely yellow brown or yellowish green or pallid ochraceous, 0.4–0.6 mm in diameter. Peridium thin, especially above, where at maturity it breaks up somewhat reticulately, leaving the more persistent lower portion often with an uneven and finally petaloid margin. Hypothallus small, discoid. Stalk short, yellow to brownish red or greenish. Capillitium dense, yellow but usually fading, the nodes rather small and irregular, often massed in the center as an orange pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, yellowish brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium clear lemon-yellow.
Reported as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but probably most common in warm temperate and tropical regions of the world. First reported from New Zealand by Stephenson (2003), based on a specimen collected in Auckland. Also known from Northland.
Leaf litter, although known from New Zealand only on decaying fronds of nakau palm.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969).
Craterium aureum is very similar morphologically to Physarum galbeum, a species not known from New Zealand. The yellow colour of the peridium is distinctive.
Craterium leucocephalum (Pers. ex J.F. Gmel.) Ditmar 1813 [1817]
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked (or occasionally sessile) sporangium to rarely subplasmodiocarpous, usually gregarious, 1.0–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose to turbinate or obovoid to cyathiform or cylindrical, erect, 0.3–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical or expanded upward, sometimes slightly flattened, plicate, reddish brown, translucent, up to one-half the total height, rarely absent. Hypothallus inconspicuous, small, circular, thin, membranous, colourless or light bright in the centre. Peridium membranous, calcareous and white or yellowish white above, ochraceous to yellow-brown or red-brown below, the lower portion persisting as a cartilaginous, ochraceous to reddish brown calyculus, dehiscence circumscissile or sometimes rather irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium physaroid, consisting of large, irregular, white, ochraceous or yellow lime nodes and slender, branching, hyaline connecting filaments with frequent membranous expansions at the junctions, sometimes forming a prominent, central pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, violaceus brown by transmitted light, 7–9 µm in diameter, minutely verrucose or spinulose. Plasmodium yellow.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). Reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taupo.
Leaf litter, twigs, and various other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species can be recognised on the basis of having a sporangium that is white above and yellow-brown to reddish-brown below. Several varieties have been described for Craterium leucocephalum, but all of these appear to be linked by intergrading forms (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and thus are hardly worth recognising.
Craterium minutum (Leers) Fr. 1829
PDD 16252
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, gregarious, 0.3–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca goblet shaped to subcylindrical, erect, 0.2–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk usually slightly paler than the base of the cup, orange red, translucent, furrowed, one half the total height or less. Peridium thick, consisting of two layers, the outer layer cartilaginous, ochraceous brown or olivaceous to deep chocolate, umber, or bright brownish red, usually darker below, the inner layer limy and white, dehiscence by a distinct preformed operculum that is sharply separated from the rest of the peridium. Capillitium physaroid, the nodes large, irregular, white or ochraceous, tending to become aggregated at the center. Spores black in mass, violaceus brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white
Probably cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Cooke (1879), based on a specimen collected in Mid Canterbury. Also known from Three Kings Islands, Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Wellington, Hawkes Bay (Colenso 1879), Mid Canterbury, South Canterbury, Dunedin (Lister & Lister 1905), and the Chatham Islands.
Dead leaves, twigs, and sometimes wood or bark
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969).
This is the most common species of Craterium in New Zealand. Other species of Craterium that might be encountered lack a distinct preformed operculum.
Craterium obovatum Peck 1873
PDD 49873.
Fruiting body a stalked to occasionally subsessile sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 1–2 mm tall. Sporotheca obovoid, dark purplish to greying brown, 0.5–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk erect, cylindrical or flared basally, smooth or rugulose, reddish brown, more or less stuffed with whitish lime, one-half or more the total height, usually continued inside the sporangium for up to two-thirds the height of the sporotheca as a clavate, fusiform, or cylindric columella. Hypothallus continuous and membranous, colourless, iridescent, or reticulate, thin, brown, or discoid. Peridium membranous, brittle, light purplish brown, usually paler and more or less calcareous above, more persistent below and often clearly delimited as a calyculus. Capillitium dense, radiating from the columella, occasionally forming a pseudocolumella, white or pale brown, sometimes with a few hyaline connecting filaments. Spores dark brown in mass, dark violaceus brown by transmitted light, warted-reticulate or reticulate, 11–17 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
North America, South America, Europe, and Asia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Diderma hookeri) from New Zealand by Berkeley (1855), based on a specimen collected by Colenso in Northland. Also known from Westland.
Dead leaves, various types of plant debris, decaying wood, and bryophytes.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991).
In some treatments of the myxomycetes, Craterium obovatum is listed as Badhamia obovata, and there is little question that this species has many of the features generally associated with members of the genus Badhamia.
Craterium Trentep. 1797
Fruiting body a stalked or very rarely sessile sporangium. Sporotheca cup-shaped to nearly cyclindrical or globose. Stalk cylindrical or tapering upward. Hypothallus usually discoid, membranous, often inconspicuous. Peridium cartilaginous, more or less encrusted with lime, dehiscence operculate or circumscissile to irregular, persistent below as a usually deep calyculus. Columella usually absent. Capillitium consisting of a network of calcareous nodes connected by hyaline filaments, often aggregated in the center to form a pseudocolumella. Spores free, dark in mass.
Thirteen species of Craterium have been described (Lado 2001); four of these are known from New Zealand.
Cribraria argillacea (Pers. ex J.F. Gmel.) Pers. 1794
PDD 48200.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium (rarely sessile to short-stalked), usually closely gregarious to densely crowded (sometimes to the point of forming a pseudoaethalium), 0.8–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose to obovate, erect, dull ochraceous to clay-coloured or olivaceous, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk furrowed, dark brown to black, usually <1.0 mm long. Hypothallus well-developed, contiguous for a group of sporangia, brown. Peridial net weak and easily detached, without thickened nodes. Calyculus deep but poorly defined; dictydine granules dark brown, irregular, 0.5–1.5 µm in diameter. Spores clay-coloured in mass, pallid by transmitted light, nearly smooth, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium lead-coloured.
Widely distributed in temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and also reported from Africa (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), Australia (Mitchell 1995), and South America (Arambarri 1975). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Southland. Also known from Dunedin.
Decaying wood, especially that of conifers

Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).

The most distinctive features of this species are the relatively large, sessile to short-stalked, clay-coloured sporangium and the weak, poorly developed peridial net.

Cribraria aurantiaca Schrad. 1797
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1–2 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect or nodding, at first bright yellow orrange but soon changing to ochraceous brown, 0.3–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk subulate, dark, 2–4 times the height of the sporotheca. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridial net regular, with small meshes and few free ends, nodes numerous, small, round, convex, dark. Calyculus usually well- developed, occupying one-fourth to one-third of the lower portion of the sporotheca or occasionally less, the margin even, bearing numerous elongated teeth with a few spines or angles that bear the peridial net; dictydine granules moderately dark, 1–1.5 µm in diameter. Spores in mass yellow when fresh but fading to ochraceous-brown or brown, almost colourless in transmitted light but with one or sometimes more bright yellow inclusions present, nearly smooth, reniform when dry, 6–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium bright green.
Widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and also known from South America (Farr 1976) and Africa (Ukkola 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen from Stewart Island. Also known from Southland (Rawson 1937).
Dead wood
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).

The spores of Cribraria aurantiaca are distinctive in that they are reniform when dry and, in relatively fresh material, possess one to several conspicuous bright yellow inclusions when fully expanded in a wet mount on a slide.

Cribraria cancellata (Batsch) Nann.-Bremek. 1975 [1974]
PDD 48207, 48213, 48506.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, often occurring in extensive fruitings, 1–5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, usually nodding, deep reddish brown or brownish purple, varying to bright purple or rufous, 0.4–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk long, slender, striate, often twisted near the apex, dark brown to black below, one to eight times as long as the diameter of the sporotheca. Peridial net consisting of a system of rigid, longitudinal ribs connected by delicate transverse filaments, usually umbilicate above. Calyculus absent; dictydine granules yellow or light orange yellow to deep brown, densely aggregated on the ribs of the peridial net, 1–2 um in diameter. Spores brick red or reddish purple-brown in mass, nearly colourless by transmitted light, nearly smooth to minutely warted, 4–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium purple-black.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) . First reported (as Dictydium umbilicatum) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taranaki. Also known from Auckland, Buller, Dunedin, Southland (Rawson 1937), and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood, particularly that of conifers.

Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997).

In most earlier treatments of the myxomycetes, this species is placed in a separate genus (Dictydium) on the basis of the prominent longitudinal ribs of the peridial net and the lack of a calyculus. Nannenga-Bremekamp (1964) pointed out that neither feature is absolutely different for the two genera and combined Dictydium and Cribraria.
Cribraria confusa Nann.-Bremek. & Y. Yamam. 1983
DWM 5528
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 0.3–0.7 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, usually erect but sometimes nodding, bright yellow to golden, 0.1–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, tapering to the apex and longitudinally striate, deep yellow to dark brown, 0.2–0.4 mm long. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridial net with angular meshes, slightly flatted[?flattened] nodes and connecting threads without free ends. Calyculus absent or reduced to a small membranous disk at the base of the sporotheca; dictydine granules yellowish brown, 1–1.5 µm in diameter. Spores bright yellow in mass, greyish yellow to almost colourless by transmitted light, subglobose to slightly polygonal, minutely spiny, 6–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Reported from scattered localities in North America (Keller et al. 1988), Europe (Lado & Pando 1997), Africa (Ukkula 1998), and Asia (Yamamoto 1998). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but appearing on a bark samples of Nothofagus fusca placed in moist chamber culture. The bark sample was collected in Fiordland.
Bark of living trees.
Keller et al. (1988), Lado & Pando (1997).

This species was not recognised as distinct from Cribraria minutissima until recently (Nannenga-Bremekamp 1983), so information relating to its world distribution is still incomplete.

Cribraria dictydioides Cooke & Balf. f. ex Massee 1892
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1.5–3.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, usually nodding but sometimes erect, commonly ochraceous to dusky brown to blackish brown, 0.5 to 0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, furrowed, tapering upward, dark brown, 1.5–3.0 mm long. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridial net regular, present both above and below, the meshes often somewhat triangular, the nodes dark, prominent, thickened, polygonal or branched, with each node giving rise to five to eight connecting threads and one or more free ends, lowermost nodes elongated and rib-like, connected to the apex of the stalk. Calyculus small, reduced to a membranous disk at the base of the sporotheca; dictydine granules brown, 0.5–2.0 µm in diameter. Spores ochraceous in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 5–6 µm in diameter. Plasmodium lead-coloured, brown, or brownish black.
Reported from Europe (Ing 1999), Asia (Yamamoto 1998) and Australia (Mitchell 1995) but not always distinguished from Cribraria intricata. First reported (as C. intricata var. dictydioides) from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury.
Decaying wood.
Yamamoto (1998), Ing (1999).
This species is considered as a variety of Cribraria intricata by many authors and differs morphologically from the latter only in the lack of a distinct calyculus. However, the two forms appear to display differences in their ecological requirements and thus global distributions (Ing 1999), which suggests that they are distinct. As such, C. intricata and C. dictydioides are treated herein as separate species.
Cribraria intricata Schrad. 1797
PDD 17624
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1.5–3.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, usually nodding but sometimes erect, commonly ochraceous to dusky brown to blackish brown, 0.5–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, furrowed, tapering upward, dark brown, 1.5–3.0 mm long. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridial net regular, the meshes often somewhat triangular, the nodes dark, prominent, thickened, polygonal or branched, with each node giving rise to five to eight connecting threads and one or more free ends. Calyculus prominent, occupying one-third to one-half the lower portion of the sporotheca; dictydine granules brown, 0.5–2.0 µm in diameter. Spores ochraceous in mass, pallid by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 5–6 µm in diameter. Plasmodium greenish brown, lead-coloured, or brownish black.
Common in North America and also reported from Europe and the tropics of Central and South America (Farr 1976) but apparently uncommon elsewhere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taranaki. Also known from Southland.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Cribraria intricata is very similar morphologically to C. tenella Schrad., a species not yet known from New Zealand, and also to C. dictydioides. The sporangium of C. intricata differs from that of C. tenella in that it tends to be somewhat larger, has a shorter stalk, and is characterised by a peridial net possessing more angular nodes that have a greater number of unconnected short filaments with free ends. In the tropics, forms with more or less intermediate features are sometimes encountered.
Cribraria macrocarpa Schrad. 1797
PDD 16109, 48222, 68795.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious to often crowded, total height 2–3 mm. Sporotheca pear-shaped or ovate, erect or nodding, yellowish brown or bronze and iridescent, 0.8–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk brown, furrowed, mostly 1–2 times as long as the diameter of the sporotheca, arising from a thin, iridescent hypothallus, expanded above, merging into the calyculus. Hypothallus thin, iridescent. Peridial net irregular, the nodes flat, expanded, dark, the filaments delicate, often dichotomously branched, the free ends sometimes circinate. Calyculus rather deep, marked by numerous dark brown radiating dentate ribs, iridescent, with many perforations in upper part so that it merges gradually with the peridial net; dictydine granules dark, 1–2 µm in diameter. Spores yellowish brown in mass, almost colourless by transmitted light, minutely roughened, 5–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium slate-coloured.
Widespread in Europe, North America, South America, and Asia (Alexopoulos & Martin 1969) and also known from Australia (1995) but apparently limited to temperate regions of the world (Farr 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on specimens collected in South Canterbury and Dunedin. Also known from Nelson and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood, especially that of conifers.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The most useful features distinguishing Cribraria macrocarpa from other species in the genus are the large dark sporotheca and the perforated margin of the calyculus that merges gradually with the peridial net. In other morphologically similar species, the margin of the peridial net is either clearly distinct (e.g., C. vulgaris) or the peridial net itself is poorly developed (e.g., C. argillacea).
Cribraria microcarpa (Schrad.) Pers. 1801
PDD 48219b
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 3–4 mm or more tall. Sporotheca globose, usually nodding, reddish ochraceous, 0.1–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, dark purplish brown, usually ten or more times as long as the diameter of the sporotheca. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridial net regular, present both above and below, the meshes of net mostly rectangular, the nodes rounded, strongly thickened, 10–20 µm in diameter. Calyculus absent or represented by a small basal disk; dictydine granules dark purple-brown, 1–2 µm in diameter. Spores ochraceous in mass, pale by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 5–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium at first colourless, becoming white and then dingy brown.
Apparently cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and relatively common in tropical forests (Stephenson, unpub. data). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen from South Canterbury.
Decaying wood, often that of conifers; also appearing on leaf litter and other types of plant debris placed in moist chamber cultures.

Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997).

This is the most common species of Cribraria with small nodding sporangia and very long, delicate stalks.

Cribraria mirabilis (Rostaf.) Massee 1892
PDD 48204
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious or closely aggregated, up to 2 mm in total height. Sporotheca globose, erect, yellow-brown to dark, often purplish brown, 0.5–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk dark, cylindrical, rarely more than twice the diameter of the sporotheca. Hypothallus membranous, dark brown. Peridial net originating as 20–30 strong ribs, often united by a membrane and then forming a more or less fugacious calyculus occupying the lower third, the upper part anastamosing to form a network, without nodal thickenings, the connecting membrane often persisting in part as an iridescent wall, apex rounded; dictydine granules dark, rather conspicuous, densely massed on and in the ribs and strands of the net and on the spores, 1.5–2 µm in diameter. Spores reddish brown in mass, hyaline, rather dark by transmitted light, minutely roughened, mostly 5.5–7.0 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.

This predominantly montane species has been reported from North America, South America, and Europe (Alexopoulos & Martin 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected by S. H. Rawson in 1930.

Decaying wood, particularly that of conifers.

Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).

Like Cribraria cancellata, this species was placed in the genus Dictydium in most earlier treatments of the myxomycetes. The fruiting bodies of C. mirabilis are very similar to those of C. cancellata but tend to be somewhat larger and more erect. Moreover, the transverse connecting filaments between the prominent ribs of the peridial net are much more apparent, especially in the upper half of the sporotheca.
Cribraria Pers. 1794

Fruiting body a stalked sporangium or (in one species) consisting of more or less sessile and aggregated sporangia, sometimes to the point of forming a pseudoaethalium. Sporotheca globose to pyriform or rarely ellipsoid to obovoid or subcylindrical. Stalk ranging from short and stout to long and slender. Hypothallus usually not apparent, membranous when present. Peridium fugacious except for a network (usually referred to as the peridial net) consisting of more or less sharply defined nodes and connecting filaments in the upper part and, in most species, a calyculus in the lower part, the latter usually prominent but sometimes greatly reduced or replaced by radiating ribs; dictydine granules present on the remnants of the peridium and sometimes on the spores. Spores yellow, brown, red or purple in mass.
From a taxonomic standpoint, Cribraria is one of the more difficult genera of myxomycetes, and identification of a particular specimen to species usually requires mature but still relatively fresh material. Approximately 40 species have been described worldwide (Lado 2001), and 13 of these have been recorded from New Zealand.

Cribraria persoonii Nann.-Bremek. 1971
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1.0–2.2 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose, erect or nodding, hazel-brown or ochraceous-brown, 0.5–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk equal in length or up to three times the diameter of the sporotheca, tapering upwards, dark brown to black, in transmitted light red-brown, plicate, without inclusions. Hypothallus relatively conspicuous, usually expending over an entire group of sporangia, dark brown. Peridial net with small and more-or-less round or oblong nodes, these thickened and without or almost without free ends, the meshes usually three- or four-sided. Calyculus occupying the lower one-third of the sporotheca, distinctly radially plicate, with fine, concentric wrinkles and bearing a series of regularly placed short ribs or teeth connected by threads to the peridial net; dictydine granules yellow-brown to dark brown, 1.0–1.5 µm in diameter. Spores in mass sandy-coloured or hazel-brown, almost colourless in transmitted light, sometimes with a bright concolourous inclusion, covered with small almost colourless warts, 6.5–7.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium grey
This species has been reported from Europe and North America (Ing 1999) as well as Asia (Yamamoto 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected in Westland
Decaying wood.
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997).
Based on published reports, Cribraria persoonii appears to be restricted to temperate regions of the world. However, this species was not recognised as distinct from C. vulgaris in most earlier surveys.
Cribraria splendens (Schrad.) Pers. 1801
 None in PDD
 Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, dusky or nut-brown, 1.5–2.0 mm high. Sporotheca globose, erect or nodding, 0.3–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, subulate, purplish brown, usually rather short but ranging up to 3–5 times as long as the diameter of the sporotheca. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridial net with large meshes and irregular, flattened or slightly thickened nodes, the connecting threads flat. Calyculus represented by 8–15 firm ribs radiating from the stalk and blending with the peridial net, sometimes partly connected by delicate, hyaline membranes at the base; dictydine granules small, 0.5–1.0 µm. Spores ochraceous in mass, colourless or nearly so by transmitted light, nearly smooth to minutely roughened, 5–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium plumbeous.
 Widely distributed in Europe and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969); also known from Asia (Yamamoto 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Southland.
 Decaying wood.
 Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997).
 The prominent ribs that occupy the lower half of the sporotheca are distinctive, although this species could be confused with Cribraria dictydioides. However, the two species can be distinguished on the basis of other differences in the peridial net.
Cribraria violacea Rex 1891
 DWM 5493.
 Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered or gregarious, total height 0.5–2.0 mm. Sporotheca subglobose to subcylindrical, erect, deep purple to purplish bronze or reddish purple, shining with a metallic luster, 0.1–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, tapering upward, concolourous or darker, usually two-thirds to four-fifths up the total height. Hypothallus discoid, membranous. Peridial net with large meshes and a few flat, widened and irregular nodes, without free ends. Calyculus prominent, occupying up to two-thirds the total height of the sporotheca; dictydine granules dark purple, 1.0–1.5 µm in diameter. Spores bright violet in mass, lilac by transmitted light, minutely warted, 7–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium purplish black.
 Apparently cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and sometimes rather common in tropical regions of the world (Stephenson, unpubl. data). Not recorded in print as occurring in New Zealand but appearing in moist chamber culture on a bark sample of Dacrydium cupressinum collected in Northland.
 Dead wood, bark of living trees, and leaf litter.
 Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997).
 The small size, deep purple colour, and deep calyculus make this an easy species to recognise.
Cribraria vulgaris Schrad. 1797
 Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1–2 mm high. 0.4–0.7 mm in diameter. Sporotheca globose, erect or nodding, at first nut-brown and then becoming dusky. Stalk subulate, rugulose, dark brown, 0.8–2.1 mm high. Hypothallus membranous, brown, discoid or sometimes expanding and extending to a number of sporangia. Peridial net irregular, consisting of broad, flattened-pulvinate, angular and branching, pale nodes and slender connecting filaments with few free ends. Calyculus prominent, occupying two thirds to two-fifths of the sporotheca, brown, marked by delicate, radiating lines of dictydine granules with irregular, coarsely dentate margin; dictydine granules dark, 0.5–2.0 µm in diameter. Spores bright yellow to ochraceous in mass, colourless by transmitted light, minutely roughened or warted, 5–6 µm in diameter. Plasmodium slate-grey or greenish.
 Reported from Europe, Asia, North America, Australia, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976, Mitchell 1995). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. SPECIMENS EXAMINED: PDD 161326, 16179, 16734a.
 Decaying wood.
 Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997).
 This species has not always been distinguished from Cribraria aurantiaca, a situation that does not allow its world distribution to be determined with any degree of certainty.
Diachea Fr. 1825
Fruiting body a stalked or (less commonly) sessile sporangium. Sporotheca globose or cylindrical. Stalk, when present, calcareous, rigid, thick, tapering upward. Hypothallus membranous, small and discoid to extensive and calcareous. Peridium a single layer, thin, iridescent, tending to be persistent. Columella conical to cylindrical, strongly calcareous. Capillitium limeless, consisting of a network of delicate threads, the tips attached to the peridium. Spores black or dark purple in mass.
Twelve species of Diachea have been described (Lado 2001), but only one of these has been recorded from New Zealand.
Diachea leucopodia (Bull.) Rostaf. 1874
PDD 20692, 29569, 47684.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 0.7–2.0 mm tall. Sporotheca elliptical to cylindrical, erect, 0.3–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk stout, tapering upward, white, filled with granular lime, one-quarter to one-half the total height of the fruiting body. Hypothallus usually conspicuous but sometimes sparse, white, calcareous. Peridium membranous, iridescent blue, purple, or bronze. Columella cylindrical or tapered upward, white, calcareous, one-half or more of the total height of the sporotheca. Capillitium dense, consisting of branching and anastomosing flexuous threads, brown with pale tips, arising from all parts of the columella. Spores nearly black in mass, dull violet by transmitted light, minutely roughened, 7–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported as cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but apparently absent from high-latitude regions of the world (Stephenson et al. 2000). First reported (as Diachea elegans) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from Auckland, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Taupo, Wellington, Hawkes Bay, Southland, and Stewart Island.
Dead leaves, twigs, and other plant debris; also commonly fruiting on living plants.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Diachea leucopodia is a distinctive species and is not likely to be confused with any other myxomycete.
Diacheopsis depressa K.S. Thind & T.N. Lakh. 1969 [1968]
CHSC 50011
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium or sometimes plasmodiocarpous, densely gregarious to crowded, depressed and pulvinate, angled from mutual pressure, 0.4-0.6 mm in diameter, occasionally slightly elongated and then reaching 2 mm in length. Hypothallus membranous, brown, encircling the fruiting body. Peridium persistent, thin, membranous, iridescent with blue, purple and green metallic colours, firmly attached to the ends of the capillitium, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium abundant, delicate, arising from the base of the fruiting body, composed of freely branching and anastomosing, colourless, slender, flexuose threads. Spores dark violet-brown in mass, pale violet-brown by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 9–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
An apparently very rare species described originally from Asia. First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen collected in Fiordland.
Leaf litter and decaying wood
Thind & Lakhanpal (1968), Kowalski (1975).
The specimen upon which the New Zealand record is based was the second collection of a species previously reported only from the type locality. The collection consists of about 20 well-developed sporangia.
Diacheopsis metallica Meyl. 1930
PDD 3651
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious to clustered, subglobose, flattened, pulvinate or occasionally slightly elongated, 0.8–2.0 mm in diameter. Hypothallus a thick, horny layer surrounding the sporangium, reddish brown. Peridium persistent, membranous, transparent, dull or more commonly with bluish, greenish or dark golden reflections, often wrinkled, firmly attached to the ends of the capillitium, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium dense, arising from the base of the sporangium, consisting of a network of branching and anastomosing hollow, colourless tubules with expanded, usually triangular, brown nodes. Spores black to purple-brown in mass, purple-brown to dusky brown by transmitted light, densely and uniformly spiny (the spines reaching about 0.7 µm in length), 13–16 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Described originally from material collected in Europe (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and also known from Asia (Yamamoto 1998) and North America (Kowalski 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen from Wellington that had been collected in 1921.
Living plants and plant debris near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Kowalski (1975), Neubert et al. (2000).
This is probably the most common and widely distributed member of the genus Diacheopsis. It is restricted to alpine snowbank habitats, which is also the case for a number of other species in the genus, while several other species (including D. depressa) are predominantly lowland in their distribution.
Diacheopsis Meyl. 1930
Fruiting body a sporangium or plasmodiocarp, sessile, scattered to clustered. Peridium generally persistent, thin, membranous, usually iridescent. Hypothallus a thin sheath surround the fruiting body, usually reddish brown. Columella absent. Capillitium highly variable, arising from the base of the fruiting body, branching and anastomosing to form a loose or dense network. Spores dark.
Diacheopsis is a rare and poorly known genus that contains 17 species (Lado 2001). None of these is particularly common and several are known only from the type collection. Two species have been reported from New Zealand. It should be noted that the only real difference between Diacheopis and a sessile Lamproderma is the presence of a columella in the latter. Moreover, the limeless sporangia sometimes produced by members of the order Physarales can mimic a Diacheopsis very closely (Kowalski 1975). Both of these facts should be taken into consideration when making an identification of what appears to represent a member of this genus.
Dianema corticatum Lister 1894
DWM 3154.
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, simple or branched, sometimes forming rings or close nets, less commonly shortened to pulvinate sporangia or forming a pseudoaethalium, 0.3–1.0 mm or more in diameter, Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer cartilaginous, opaque, ochraceous brown or dull purplish brown, with a more or less wrinkled surface, granular, the inner layer membranous. Capillitium usually sparse, of simple or scantily branched, slender, pale brown threads, 1.5–2.5 µm in diameter, variously beaded and often spirally twisted or with the markings in long spirals. Spores yellow in mass, pale or colourless by transmitted light, subglobose to broadly ellipsoidal, mostly clustered in groups of 2–6, bearing spines on the exposed side, 10–15 by 8–10 µm. Plasmodium pink.
Widely distributed in Europe and also known from scattered localities in temperate North American and Australia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Lister & Lister 1915). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from the Bay of Plenty (Mitchell 1992).
Decaying wood, usually coniferous.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Lando & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This uncommon species appears to have a distribution limited largely to montane coniferous forests of the Northern Hemisphere. A well-defined capillitium is often absent, making a positive identification difficult.
Dianema depressum (Lister) Lister 1894
CHSC 50013.
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, flattened pulvinate to broadly effused, 2–10 mm in the longest dimension, very thin, 0.2–0.3 mm, rarely sporangiate on a constricted base, grey-brown, glossy. Peridium membranous, smooth or obscurely reticulate, translucent yellowish grey or drab, marked on the inner side with the persistent attached ends of the capillitial clusters. Capillitium usually abundant, consisting of pale yellowish grey threads, 1–2 µm thick, triangular in cross section, each angle bearing a row of minute tubercles, united above and below into clusters of mostly 2–6 threads, at length breaking away as an elastic web. Spores mostly free, pale lilaceous grey in mass, pallid by transmitted light, the greater part of the surface covered with a delicate, rather close reticulation, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or rosy.
Known from widely scattered localities in Europe and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and also reported from Asia (Yamamoto 1998) and Australia (Cheesman & Lister 1915). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury. Also known from Otago Lakes (Stagg 1982).
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This is the only species of Dianema with reticulate spores, a feature that makes identification relatively easy.
Dianema harveyi Rex 1891
None in PDD
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious, pulvinate or plasmodiocarpous, 0.5 to 2.0 mm in diameter. Peridium thin, membranous, ochraceous to dull red or brown, iridescent, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium consisting of smooth, taut, sparsely forked threads, not anastomosing nor penicillate, running from base to top. Spores free, yellow in mass, pale yellowish by transmitted light, spiny, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from Asia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Yamamoto 1998) and also known from South America (Ing 1999). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on two specimens collected in Dunedin.
Decaying wood, usually fallen branches.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Dianema harveyi is very close to D. depressum but has warted and not reticulate spores. Moreover, the sporangia of the former are usually red or brown (in contrast to the beige to grey-brown sporangia of D. depressum).
Dianema Rex 1891
Fruiting body a short-stalked or (more commonly) sessile sporangium or sometimes plasmodiocarpous. Hypothallus usually inconspicuous. Peridium membranous to cartilaginous. Columella absent. Capillitium present and consisting of smooth or obscurely sculptured, simple or forked, slender threads, attached to the base of the fruiting body and to the peridium. Spores pallid or yellow, sometimes pinkish at first, free or united in clusters.
Seven species of Dianema have been described (Lado 2001), and three of these have been collected in New Zealand. All species of Dianema appear to be uncommon, and members of the genus do not seem to occur in the tropics (Farr 1976).
Dianemataceae T. Macbr. 1899
Fruiting body a sessile (or subsessile) sporangium or occasionally taking the form of a short plasmodiocarp. Hypothallus membranous but often not readily apparent. Peridium usually single but sometimes with a granular outer layer. Columella absent. Capillitium present, consisting of filaments that are solid or have a restricted lumen, smooth or with minute markings, coiled to nearly straight, attached to the base of the fruiting body and usually to the peridium, simple or sparsely branched, never forming a network. Spores free or clustered.
The family Dianemataceae contains two genera (Dianema and Calomyxa), both of which have been recorded from New Zealand.
Dictydiaethalium plumbeum (Schumach.) Rostaf. ex Lister 1894
PDD 68826, 74380
Fruiting body a pseudoaethalium (occasionally sporangiate or aethaliate fruiting bodies are encountered) composed of numerous cylindrical sporangia, grey at first but becoming dull yellow to yellowish brown, sporangia densely compacted into a flat, palisade-like layer, the individual sporangia 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter and 1–3 mm tall, the total composite structure sometimes 10 cm or more in total extent. Hypothallus thick, often extending beyond the margin of the fruiting body, silvery or pallid. Peridium membranous, not persisting in mature fruiting bodies except at the apices of the individual sporangia (where it is thicker and forms a well-defined "cap") and in the junctions between adjacent sporangia (where it persists as threadlike strands), dehiscence occurring as a result of the breaking apart of the individual sporangial caps, each of which remains connected to the threadlike strands formed in the sporangial junctions. Pseudocapillitum consisting of these persistent remnants of the peridium. Spores olivaceous brown to yellow or clay-coloured in mass, nearly colourless to pale yellow by transmitted light, distinctly spiny (spines up to 1 um long), 8.5–11.0 µm in diameter. Plasmodium bright pink.
Reported to be cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but apparently most common in temperate regions of the world and rare at high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000). First reported from New Zealand by Chessman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen from the Bay of Plenty. Also known from Auckland, South Canterbury, and Dunedin (Rawson 1937).
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Although quite variable in size and colour, this species is usually fairly easy to recognise because of the distinctive nature of the fruiting body.
Dictydiaethalium Rostaf. 1873
Fruiting body a pseudoaethalium composed of numerous cylindrical sporangia densely compacted into a flat, palisade-like layer. Hypothallus thick, persistent. Peridium membranous, not persisting in mature fruiting bodies except at the apices of the individual sporangia and in the junctions between adjacent sporangia where the pendent filaments form a pseudocapillitium. Spores olivaceous brown to yellow or clay-coloured in mass.
Two species have been described in this genus (Lado 2001), and one of these has been collected in New Zealand.
Diderma alpinum (Meyl.) Meyl. 1917
PDD 74409, 74410, 74411.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (but often elongated into a short plasmodiocarp), crowded, pulvinate, 0.7–1.0 mm in diameter. Hypothallus conspicuous, white, calcareous, mostly under sporangia, sometimes containing large, subcrystalline lime nodules. Peridium consisting of two layers, the layers distant or readily separating, outer layer white, calcareous, crustose, smooth, inner layer membranous, shining, translucent, pale flesh coloured, dehiscence more or less irregular. Columella pulvinate, ochraceous-orange. Capillitium consisting of branched and anastomosing threads, these purplish or hyaline, bearing dark fusiform swellings, conspicuous or sparse. Spores black in mass, purplish brown by transmitted light, distinctly and somewhat irregularly spiny, 11–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Recorded from Asia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Yamamota 1998, Ing 1999). First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on specimens collected in Taupo, Westland, and North Canterbury. Also known from South Canterbury and Mackenzie.
Dead (or sometimes living) herbaceous stems and other types of plant debris, usually near melting snowbanks in alpine regions
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species is perhaps the most commonly encountered member of the group of "snowbank" myxomycetes found in alpine regions of the Southern Alps (Stephenson & Johnston 2003). It is very similar morphologically to Diderma niveum, which occurs in the same ecological situations.
Diderma asteroides (Lister & G. Lister) G. Lister 1911
PDD 16701.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (rarely short-stalked or plasmodiocarpous), globose or ovoid, the apex often more or less acuminate, 0.2–0.8 mm in diameter. Hypothallus white, scanty. Peridium consisting of three layers, the outermost layer reddish brown to brown, cartilaginous, more or less marked by radiating lines converging at the apex, firmly attached to the middle layer, the latter consisting of closely aggregated lime granules, the innermost layer membranous, usually free and sometimes distant from the middle layer, dehiscence floriform. Columella globose or depressed-globose or sometimes poorly developed, rugulose, pallid to deep ochraceous. Capillitium consisting of slender, anastomosing, purplish threads, these pale at the tips. Spores black in mass, smoky violaceous brown by transmitted light, warted, 10–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow or orange.
Recorded from scattered localities in Europe and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but apparently uncommon. First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from Auckland.
Dead leaves, also occurring on decaying wood and bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
After dehiscence has occurred, the sporangia of this species resemble miniature earthstars and are unlikely to be confused with any other myxomycete.
Diderma chondrioderma (de Bary & Rostaf.) G. Lister 1925
DWM 3143, 3175.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered, discoid, 0.5–0.7 mm in diameter, or sometimes forming expanding and lobed, flattened plasmodiocarps 1–3 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, very short, dark brown. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, with deposits of round or angular lime granules united to form a rather rough and irregular crust or sparsely distributed, sometimes limeless or nearly so, often with scattered deposits of amorphous material, white or purplish grey when limeless, dehiscence irregular. Columella flesh-coloured, sometimes nearly lacking. Capillitium consisting of coarse threads, these purplish or colourless, often with membranous expansions at the joints. Spores dark grey in mass, pale purplish grey by transmitted light, minutely and closely spiny, 12–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white, then violet.
Reported from widely scattered localities in Europe and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing on bark samples of Metrosideros excelsa placed in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Auckland.
Bark of living trees, especially bark with bryophytes present.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Ing (1999).
This species is more likely to be encountered in a moist chamber culture than as a field collection. It is not common, and most fruitings consist of limited material. Diderma chondrioderma resembles the more common D. effusum but the latter has smaller spores and fruiting bodies that are noticeably flattened.
Diderma cinereum Morgan 1894
None in PDD
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious, subglobose, somewhat depressed, 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, smooth, crustose, dehiscence irregular. Columella hemispherical to subglobose, conspicuous, white. Capillitium consisting of slender, dark threads, with pale tips, sparsely branched and anastomosing, more or less separate from the columella. Spores black in mass, dark violaceous grey by transmitted light, minutely warted, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Reported from scattered localities in Asia (Yamamoto 1998), Europe (Ing 1999), and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but apparently uncommon. Reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen collected on Stewart Island.
Decaying wood, dead leaves and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
In the Northern Hemisphere, this species usually fruits in late spring, which is much earlier in the season than the majority of myxomycetes. The specimen on which the New Zealand record is based was collected in early November, which is consistent with this pattern.
Diderma deplanatum Fr. 1829
CHSC 50068.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or sometimes forming a curved or ring-shaped plasmodiocarp), scattered or in small groups, pulvinate, 1.0–1.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer smooth, crustose, brittle, thick, white or pale cream-coloured or lilaceous, the inner layer membranous, iridescent, deep orange below, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent or represented by a broadly convex or thickened orange-brown base. Capillitium consisting of dark, simple or sparsely branched threads, often bearing spiny or nodular enlargements. Spores rather dark yellow-brown by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 9–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Widespread in Europe (Lado 1999) and also reported from Asia (Yamamoto 1998) and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1992), based on several specimens collected in Westland.
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris; sometimes fruiting on bryophytes.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species is similar in appearance to Diderma effusum but does not produce the broadly effused fruitings characteristic of the latter, the inner layer of the peridium is deep orange to orange-brown, and the spores are larger and darker.
Diderma donkii Nann.-Bremek. 1973
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, crowded or gregarious, pulvinate, rather depressed, 0.3–1.2 mm in diameter and up to 0.2 mm tall. Hypothallus sometimes encrusted with ochraceous coloured lime but usually inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer dull wrinkled or smooth, limy, white or dirty cream when fresh and then fading to ochraceous-brown or beige, crumbling away before the inner layer, the latter colourless and membranous with little or no lime, dehiscence irregular. Columella thin, covering most of the base, rust-brown, often absent. Capillitium consisting of two kinds of tubules, the first thin, dichotomously branched, almost colourless, the second with thick centres, purple-brown with lighter tips. Spores dark brown in mass, purple grey in transmitted light, paler on one side, covered with rather dispersed distinct warts, with small groups of larger warts, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium creamy buff.
Described originally from Europe and also known from Asia (Nannenga-Bremekamp & Yamamoto 1997). Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen from Coromandel collected in 1945.
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris.
Nannenga-Bremekmap (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This apparently rare species can be recognised by the ochraceous-brown or beige colour of the mature fruiting body, which is quite unlike that of any other species of Diderma found in New Zealand.
Diderma effusum (Schwein.) Morgan 1894
PDD 48215, 75474, 75475.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium or (more commonly) a plasmodiocarp, the latter usually broadly effused, gregarious, 0.5–1.5 mm broad and often up to 6 cm in maximum extent. Hypothallus membranous, white, rarely extending very far beyond the fruiting body and often inconspicuous. Peridium double, the outer layer calcareous, relatively smooth, white, the inner layer membranous, colourless, dehiscence irregular. Columella flat pulvinate, pinkish brown. Capillitium delicate, the threads colourless or pale purple, sparingly branched and anastomosing. Spores dark purple in mass, pale violaceous brown by transmitted light, almost smooth to minutely warted, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Considered to be cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from Auckland.
Dead leaves and other plant debris on the forest floor.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Typical fruitings of Diderma effusum are easily recognized by their broadly effused plasmodiocarps. Diderma chondrioderma is rather similar in appearance, but much less common in nature, although it sometimes appears on tree bark in moist chamber cultures. Sessile sporangia of D. hemisphaericum might be confused with those of D. effusum, but the presence of at least some stalked sporangia in a given fruiting is enough to distinguish this species. In northern New Zealand, Diderma effusum appears to be relatively common on decaying fronds of nikau palm (Stephenson 2003).
Diderma globosum Pers. 1794
PDD 68770.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious to densely crowded and then forming a pseudoaethalium, globose to subglobose or angled from pressure, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Hypothallus scanty to profuse, membranous, white or cream-coloured, usually extending beyond the sporangia. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer fragile, smooth, polished, white to cream-coloured or ochraceous (rarely faintly lilaceous), the inner layer remote from the outer one, membranous, dark, slightly iridescent, dehiscence irregular. Columella usually large, hemispherical to globose, white to pale ochraceous. Capillitium abundant, consisting of slender, irregularly branching and sparsely anastomosing, pale brown or purplish filaments, these often bearing irregular expansions towards the base. Spores black in mass, yellowish brown by transmitted light, sometimes paler on one side, 9–10 µm in diameter, sparsely to densely warted. Plasmodium white.
Widely distributed in Asia, Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999) but apparently uncommon or absent from the tropics (Farr 1976). Reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin.
Decaying wood, litter and other types of plant debris; often encrusting living plants
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
Diderma spumarioides is similar in appearance to D. globosum, but the latter lacks a prominent hypothallus and has darker spores (Farr 1976, Ing 1999).
Diderma hemisphaericum (Bull.) Hornem. 1829
PDD 3644, 73121.
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, gregarious, 1–2 mm tall. Sporotheca discoid, often slightly depressed above and umbilicate below, 0.6–1.4 mm in diameter. Stalk rather thick, cylindrical, grooved, usually short but sometimes up to 1 mm tall, furrowed, ochraceous. Hypothallus discoid, membranous, colourless to white. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer cartilaginous, smooth above, thickened and rugose below, white, composed of globose lime granules, the inner layer membranous, delicate, cinereous, dehiscence more or less circumscissile. Columella broad, flat, pale or dark brown, calcareous. Capillitium delicate, scanty to abundant, consisting of sparsely branched, colouress to pale violet-brown filaments. Spores dark brown in mass, pale yellow or violaceous brown by transmitted light, very minutely warted, the warts often clustered, 10–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium opaque white.
Considered to be cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but apparently uncommon at high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000). First reported from New Zealand by Macbride (1926), based on a specimen collected in Mid Canterbury. Also known from Auckland.
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris, occasionally on decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
The fruiting bodies of Diderma hemisphaericum, which resemble miniature mushrooms, are distinctive. The only morphologically similar species is Didymium clavus, which has a quite different peridium.
Diderma miniatum cf. sensu Nann.-Bremek. 1989
OTA 057306
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, stalked, up to 2 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose, shiny, scarlet fading to orange, about 1 mm in diameter. Hypothallus membranous, discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia, brown. Stalk sturdy, 0.2–1.2 mm long, pale orange, filled with white, crystalline lime. Peridium of three closely adherent layers, the outer layer membranous, bright yellow, the middle layer calcareous, thick and brittle, the inner layer membranous, colourless and smooth, dehiscence from the apex, forming 6–8 lobes and thus more or less floriform. Columella conical or globose, calcareous, reaching to about the centre of the sporotheca, pale yellow. Capillitium dense, the threads rather slender, very pale orange. Spores dark brown in mass, medium dark violet-brown by transmitted light, subglobose, warted, 10–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Described originally from South America (Nannenga-Bremekamp 1989), this species also has been reported from several localities in southern Mexico (Rodríguez Palma 1998). The New Zealand record is based upon a specimen collected in Dunedin.
Various types of plant debris
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1989).
The collection from New Zealand, which consists of approximately 25 sporangia, was referred to Diderma miniatum only because it seems to fit the published description of this species better than any other member of the genus Diderma. The identification is not entirely satisfactory, since the New Zealand material also differs in several important respects. For example, the colour of the peridium is yellow instead of the "scarlet fading to orange" mentioned in the original description, the spores are larger (up to 15 µm in diameter versus 10–11 µm in diameter), and the columella is globose and not conical. Because D. miniatum is an apparently very rare species represented by only a few collections, the total extent of its morphological variation is still unknown. Further study with adequate material may indicate that the collection from New Zealand is a separate and distinct species, but it is included within D. miniatum for the purposes of this monograph.
Diderma niveum (Rostaf.) T. Macbr. 1899
PDD 74397, 74398, 74399.
Fruiting body a sessile (or sometimes subsessile) sporangium, gregarious to crowded, depressed-globose to pulvinate, 0.7–2.2 mm in diameter. Hypothallus white, calcareous, ranging from abundant to inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer smooth, calcareous, fragile, the inner layer membranous, often iridescent, yellow or orange below, often closely adherent to the outer layer, dehiscence irregular. Columella prominent, globose to hemispherical, ochraceous to deep orange. Capillitium abundant, elastic, consisting of two types of threads, the first type coarse, purple or dusky brown with pale tips, the second type colourless with bead-like expansions, both types sparsely branched and anastomosing. Spores black in mass, violet-brown by transmitted light, minutely roughened, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Widely distributed in the mountains of Europe and western North America (Martin & Alexoupulos 1969) and also known from the Antarctic (Ing & Smith 1983). Reported from New Zealand by Stephenson & Johnston (2003), based on specimens from Central Otago
Dead twigs and other types of plant debris or (more rarely) living plants, usually near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This is perhaps the most common and widely distributed of the "snowbank" myxomycetes. It is quite variable, and several varieties have been described that possibly warrant recognition as distinct species.
Diderma ochraceum Hoffm. 1796 [1795]
None in PDD
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered to clustered, subglobose, 0.4-1.2 mm in diameter and 0.3-0.8 tall. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer cartilaginous, nearly smooth, ochraceous or pale dingy yellow, the inner layer membranous, closely adherent to the outer layer, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent or represented by a rough ochraceous mound. Capillitium abundant, consisting of delicate, very slender, brown, sparsely branched and hardly anastomosing threads. Spores dark brown in mass, pale grey in transmitted light, minutely warted or spiny, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium lemon yellow.
Reported from widely scattered localities in North America, Europe, northern Africa (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Yamamoto 1998, Ing 1999) but apparently rare. First reported (as Diderma ochraceum var. izawae) from New Zealand by Yamamoto & Nannenga-Bremekamp (1995), based on a specimen collected in Hawkes Bay
Bryophytes in moist places
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
This is a very distinctive species that invariably occurs in association with bryophytes. The apparent ecological relationship that exists between bryophytes and some species of myxomycetes has been noted by various authors (e.g., Stephenson & Studlar 1985) but no detailed investigations have been carried out. The collection upon which the New Zealand record is based differs from typical material of Diderma ochraceum in a number of minor features and was described as the variety izawae
Diderma Pers. 1794
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium or (less commonly) a plasmodiocarp. Stalk, when present, stout, calcareous. Hypothallus inconspicuous to extensive and then white and strongly calcareous. Peridium typically consisting of two layers, but in some species apparently made up of one or three layers, the outer layer calcareous or cartilaginous, the inner layer membranous, and the middle layer, when present, calcareous, the lime amorphous or crystalline. Columella usually conspicuous, sometimes reduced to a thickened, intrusive, dome like base. Capillitium thread-like, branching and anastomosing, limeless or sometimes replaced by limy columns. Spores dark brown or black in mass.
More than 60 species have been described for the genus Diderma (Lado 2001), 14 of which have been recorded from New Zealand. As the name itself implies, species assigned to this genus usually appear to have a peridium that consists of two layers. This feature is often readily apparent and thus useful in making a tentative field identification.
Diderma spumarioides (Fr.) Fr. 1829
PDD 68827.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious or (more commonly) densely crowded, globose, 0.4–0.8 mm in diameter, usually deeply imbedded in the hypothallus. Hypothallus contiguous to a group of sporangia, thick, white to cream-coloured. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer smooth to rugulose or areolate, densely calcareous, fragile, white to pale ochraceous, the inner layer closely adherent to the outer layer, membranous, dull grey, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium usually abundant, rather sparsely branched and anstomosing, slender, sinuous, purple-brown with pale tips. Spores black in mass, light yellowish or violaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely and often irregularly warted or spiny, 8–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but represented by a specimen from Dunedin.
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris; sometimes encrusting living plants.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
The densely crowded sporangia deeply embedded in a prominent, white hypothallus make this an easy species to identify
Diderma testaceum (Schrad.) Pers. 1801
PDD 68771.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious to clustered, hemispherical to depressed-globose, 0.7–1.0 mm in diameter. Hypothallus membranous, thin, delicate, colourless, often not evident. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer smooth, polished, porcelain-like, pale flesh-coloured or pink, the inner layer membranous, remote from the outer layer, thin, often wrinkled, grey. Columella prominent, convex to hemispherical, slightly roughened, pink to reddish brown. Capillitium abundant, consisting of delicate, flexuose, sparingly branched, pale violaceous or colourless threads. Spores black in mass, light violaceous brown by transmitted light, 8–9 µm in diameter, nearly smooth to minutely but densely warted. Plasmodium yellowish buff.
Recorded from Asia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but represented by a specimen collected in Dunedin.
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris, usually in moist habitats.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
The pink colour of the porcelain-like outer peridium in freshly formed sporangia is distinctive. The rather old specimen upon which the New Zealand record is based has not retained its colour and is now entirely white.
Didymiaceae Rostaf. ex Cooke 1877
Fruiting body usually a stalked or sessile sporangium, but sometimes a plasmodiocarp, aethalium, or pseudoaethalium is produced. Stalk[ital], when present, short and stout to slender and relatively long. Hypothallus inconspicuous to conspicuous and contiguous for a group of fruiting bodies. Peridium a single layer or in some species consisting of two or three layers, membranous to cartilaginous, the outermost layer usually calcareous, the lime present either granular or crystalline. Columella present or absent. Capillitium typically limeless, thread like, purple brown to pallid. Spores dark in mass.
Six genera are recognised for the family Didymiaceae, and five of these occur in New Zealand
Didymium bahiense Gottsb. 1968
PDD 20325, 31948, 48512.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, loosely gregarious, 0.8–1.3 mm total height. Sporotheca subglobose, depressed, scarcely to deeply umbilicate below, white, 0.2–0.7 mm in diameter. Hypothallus small, inconspicuous, venulose or circular, blackish. Stalk slender, subulate, noncalcareous, longitudinally striate, blackish brown below, brown to yellow-brown or yellow above. Columella absent but a columella-like structure (pseudocolumella) present, the latter flat, orbicular, white. Peridium membranous, colourless, covered with white lime crystals, dehiscing in irregular lobes. Capillitium consisting of delicate, light to dark brown, sparsely branched, tightly sinuous, sometimes nodulose filaments with colourless tips, attached to the columella and the peridium. Spores dark brown in mass, violaceous brown by transmitted light, 10–12 µm in diameter, almost smooth to densely and irregularly warted, sometime with clusters of warts. Plasmodium unknown
Described originally from South America and now known from Africa, Asia, Europe, and North America (Ukkola 1998, Yamamoto 1998, Ing 1999, Stephenson et al. 2001). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens from the Kermadec Islands, Auckland, Coromandel, and Bay of Plenty. Also known from Rangitikei.
Dead leaves, other types of plant debris, and the dung of herbivorous animals.
Ing (1999).
Didymium bahiense is one member of a species complex that also includes two other species (D. iridis and D. nigripes) that have been reported from New Zealand as well as several others not known to occur here. All members of the complex possess a relatively long stalk bearing a more or less globose sporotheca. Clark (2000) has suggested that most of these probably represent little more than slightly different morphological expressions of a single rather variable taxonomic entity, which he has referred to as the Didymium iridis superspecies. However, some forms do appear to be consistently distinguishable on the basis of differences in colour, spore size and markings, and the presence/absence (and shape when present) of a columella or pseudocolumella. The single most distinguishing feature of D. bahiense is the presence of a prominent, white, discoid pseudocolumella that is readily apparent in sporangia that have lost most of their spores.
Didymium clavus (Alb. & Schwein.) Rabenh. 1844
PDD 16128, 17611
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, up to 1 mm tall. Sporotheca discoid, often umbilicate above, 0.5–1 mm in diameter. Stalk tapering upward, longitudinally striate, dark brown or black, paler at top, sometimes so short as to be contained within the base, the sporangium then appearing sessile. Hypothallus membranous, discoid to venulose, black. Peridium membranous, more or less covered with lime crystals above, greyish white or dark when lime is scanty, thickened, brown, and limeless on the under side. Columella represented by the thickened discoid to dome-like base of the sporotheca. Capillitium abundant, delicate, the threads pale purple-brown or nearly colourless, sparsely branched. Spores black in mass, pale violaceous brown by transmitted light, nearly smooth, 6–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium grey or colourless.
Recorded from localities throughout the world and possibly cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens from Buller and South Canterbury.
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris; occasionally occurring on dead wood or on bark in moist chamber cultures.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
This is a distinctive species and can be recognised by the combination of a discoid sporotheca on a black stipe. Diderma hemisphericum is morphologically similar but has a very different type of peridium
Didymium difforme (Pers.) Gray 1821
PDD 21778, 68773
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious, flat-pulvinate, 0.1–0.3 mm tall and 0.3–1.0 mm broad, varying to short, netted or effused plasmodiocarps up to 25 mm in length. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium double, the outer layer smooth, white, composed of densely aggregated lime crystals, sometimes lacking, the inner layer delicate, purplish or colourless, iridescent. Capillitium usually scanty, sometimes profuse, of brown or nearly colourless, dichotomously branching threads, often rather coarse below, slender above. Columella absent or represented by the purplish, thickened calcareous base. Spores black in mass, dark purple-brown or purplish grey by transmitted light, minutely warted, 11–14 µm in diameter, sometimes paler on one side. Plasmodium colourless or pale yellow.
Cosmopolitan or nearly so (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999). First reported from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), but without naming a specific locality. Also known from Auckland, North Canterbury, and Dunedin (Rawson 1937).
Dead leaves, other types of plant debris, and the dung of herbivorous animals.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
The smooth outer layer of the peridium is more suggestive of a species of Diderma than Didymium, but the crystalline nature of the lime present is readily apparent when examined closely
Didymium dubium Rostaf. 1874
PDD 74412, 74413, 74414.
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, thin, flat, 1–30 mm long and 1–6 mm wide, 0.3–0.5 thick, usually accompanied by small, flat-pulvinate, sporangia. Peridium membranous, firm, colourless, purplish or tawny, more or less covered with a white, often floccose crust of minute, stellate, rod-like or nodular lime crystals, but these may be compacted into a limy crust, sometimes nearly limeless and then dark, or the lime occasionally in the form of scales. Columella usually represented by the thickened base. Capillitium abundant, rigid, the threads brown to pallid, radiating, branching and anastomosing freely from nearly transverse bars, thus forming an elastic net that separates readily from the base and peridium. Spores black in mass, purplish brown by transmitted light, often darker on one side, distinctly and closely warted, 10–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium grey.
Known from widely scattered localities in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and apparently absent or at least very rare in the tropics (Farr 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen from Westland. Also known from Central Otago
Living plants, leaf litter and other types of plant debris; most commonly associated with such substrates near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions but also known to occur in lowland situations.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species is often relatively common in alpine regions of the Southern Alps, where it fruits on living plants and plant debris near the edges of melting snowbanks (Stephenson & Johnston 2003). The flat, grey plasmodiocarps are often large enough to be easily noticed when they fruit on living plants.
Didymium iridis (Ditmar) Fr. 1829
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, up to 1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca [ital]globose or slightly depressed, erect, white, 0.4–0.6 mm in diameter. Peridium thin, membranous, nearly or quite colourless, more or less densely covered with white lime crystals. Stalk slender, cylindrical, usually two-thirds or more of the total height, yellow or yellowish brown, translucent. Columella white or nearly so, turbinate, depressed-globose or subglobose. Capillitium delicate, consisting of colourless or pale yellow-brown branching threads, always hyaline at the tips. Spores brown in mass, pale violaceous by transmitted light, minutely warted or nearly smooth, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellowish or brown.
Regarded as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). Reported (as Didymium nigripes var. xanthopus) from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915) without naming a specific locality.
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969).
As noted under Didymium bahiense, D. iridis is at the centre of a species complex to which many of the long-stalked species of Didymium have been assigned by some authors. If recognised as distinct, as is the case herein, D. iridis can be recognised by the prominent, white, clavate columella that becomes visible after most of the spores have been lost from the sporangium. The early records of this species from New Zealand may refer to D. bahiense, which appears to be much more common. However, several specimens obtained from moist chamber cultures during more recent studies (unpubl. data) do appear to represent D. iridis.
Didymium melanospermum (Pers.) T. Macbr. 1899
PDD 16113, 16702, 75463
Fruiting body a stalked (or sometimes sessile) sporangium, gregarious, up to 1 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose or depressed, deeply umbilicate below, white or grey, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Peridium firm, dull brown or black, more or less densely covered with white lime crystals. Stalk usually short, stout, rarely up to two-thirds the total height, dull brown or black, often completely immersed in the umbilicate base of the sporotheca. Columella prominent, hemispherical, dark or pallid, calcareous. Capillitium consisting of sparingly branched, pale to purple-brown, sinuous threads, these varying from slender to robust, often bearing dark, nodular thickenings. Spores black in mass, dull purplish brown by transmitted light, strongly warted or spiny, 10–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless or dull grey.
Considered to be cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) and sometimes abundant in the tropics. First reported (as D. farinaceum) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on specimens from South Canterbury and Stewart Island. Also known from Auckland, Coromandel, Fiordland, and Mackenzie.
Decaying wood, twigs, and dead leaves
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
The distinguishing characteristics of this species are the robust, deeply umbilicate sporotheca and the short dark stalk. It sometimes occurs in the same types of ecological situations as Didymium squamulosum. However, the sporotheca of D. squamulosum is globose to discoid and the stalk is white
Didymium nigripes (Link) Fr. 1829
PDD 4546, 15933, 30872.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, up to 2 mm high. Sporotheca globose or hemispherical, erect, somewhat umbilicate beneath, 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Peridium membranous, smoky, covered with white calcareous crystals. Columella dark brown, subglobose, calcareous within. Stalk slender, erect, dark brown or blackish, often filled with dark amorphous matter below, the upper portion paler, translucent. Hypothallus discoid, black. Capillitium delicate, the threads brown or colourless, bearing occasional thickenings, sparingly branched and with few anastomoses. Spores dark in mass, pale violaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, the warts often clustered, 7–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium grey or colourless.
Considered to be cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from Dunedin. Also known from Auckland, Gisborne, Nelson, and Buller.
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species and D. iridis are morphologically almost identical and can be separated only on the basis of the somewhat mottled peridium and colour of the stalk and columella.
Didymium Schrad. 1797
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium or a plasmodiocarp. Peridium thin, membranous, covered with a more or less dense coating of calcareous crystals either scattered loosely over the surface or combined into a crust. Columella usually present, but sometimes reduced to a thickened, calcareous base. Capillitium of branching and anastomosing limeless threads often bearing dark, nodular thickenings. Spores black in mass.
This is a very large and diverse genus, and more than 70 species have been described (Lado 2001). Nine of these are known from New Zealand.
Didymium serpula Fr. 1829
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, thin, dark grey or greyish-white, flat, 2–8 mm long or wide (but sometimes even larger), 0.10–0.15 mm thick, sometimes perforated. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium membranous, covered with various amounts of white, stellate, or sometimes less regular, lime crystals. Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of slender, yellow-brown threads attached to conspicuous, subglobose vesicles, these 30–50 µm in diameter, filled with yellow granular material. Spores brown in mass, pale violet-brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 8–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.[
Known from scattered localities in Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Mitchell 1995, Yamamoto 1998). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but represented by a specimen collected in Westland.
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This apparently rather rare species is easily recognized on the basis of the very flat plasmodiocarps and the conspicuous vesicles associated with the threads of the capillitium
Didymium squamulosum (Alb. & Schwein.) Fr. 1818
PDD 12212, 68578, 68801
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium (but sometimes varying to sessile and plasmodiocarpous), scattered to gregarious, up to 1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca appearing globose or depressed, but usually discoid and deeply umbilicate below, 0.3–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk stout, calcareous, usually more or less fluted but sometimes nearly smooth, white or ochraceous to orange or pinkish, arising from often attaining two-thirds the total height but sometimes very short and buried in the umbilicus or even lacking. Hypothallus discoid, membranous, nearly colourless to while. Peridium membranous, transparent, somewhat iridescent, usually covered with a thick, white crust of stellate lime crystals that often form a reticulate surface, the lime sometimes scanty, white, grey or rarely pinkish when fresh. Columella white or pale, discoid or hemispherical, consisting of the thickened, umbilicate sporangial base, with an expanded, subglobose or flattened tip. Capillitium variable, the threads slender or coarse, nearly simple or branching profusely, colourless or pallid, less commonly dark, often bearing conspicuous thickenings. Spores black in mass, dark violaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely warted or spiny, the warts sometimes clustered, 8–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless, white or yellow.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). The report by Berkeley (1855) of Didymium australe from New Zealand, based on a specimen collected by W. Colenso in Northland, probably can be referred to this species. Also known from Auckland (Kirk 1872), Coromandel, Wellington, Gisborne, Nelson, Dunedin (Lister & Lister 1905), Southland, Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905), the Chatham Islands, and Campbell Island.
Leaf litter, other types of plant debris, and the dung of herbivorous animals
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Didymium squamulosum is often exceedingly common on the decaying fronds of nikau palm (Stephenson 2003). It is rather variable, particularly with respect to the length of the stalk.
Echinostelium apitectum K.D. Whitney 1980
DWM 5499
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered or gregarious, 100–350 µm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect or nodding, pale pink or white, 30–65 µm in diameter. Stalk translucent, white or pale yellow, 70–290 µm long. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium not persisting in mature fruiting bodies except as a collar at the base of the sporotheca. Columella a short peg-like structure enclosed in a globose, spore-like covering. Capillitium absent. Spores pale pink or pale tan in mass, colourless to pale pink or pale grey by transmitted light, more or less smooth, 6–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless.
Reported from Africa (Ing 1999), Asia (Yamamoto 1998), Australia (Mitchell 1995), Europe (Lado & Pando 1997), and North America (Whitney 1980), but never common. Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but appearing in moist chamber culture on bark samples from an unidentified tree. The bark samples were collected in Auckland.
Bark of living trees
Whitney (1980), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).

The spore-like structure at the apex of the stalk is the distinguishing feature of this species. In some specimens, this structure has a pronounced saucer-shaped base and the peg-like internal columella is lacking. Such specimens are recognized as a separate species (Echinostelium vanderpoelii) by some authors.

Echinostelium de Bary 1873
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, minute (usually <0.5 mm tall). Sporotheca globose, small (usually <50 µm in diameter). Stalk tapering from base to apex, translucent or pallid. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium completely fugacious or partly remaining in the form of a basal collar. Columella present or absent, but usually extremely short when present. Capillitium present or absent, but when present originating at the apex of the columella and ranging from a single, sparingly branched filament to a well-developed network. Spores globose or subglobose, hyaline or white to yellow, pink or pale brown, the spore wall sometimes with thicken areas.
Echinostelium fragile Nann.-Bremek. 1961
DWM 3067, 3133

Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 100–150 µm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect or nodding, pale grey to yellowish pink, 30–50 µm in diameter. Stalk translucent, pale yellow, 70–130 µm long. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium persisting in mature fruiting bodies as a collar at the base of the sporangium. Columella cylindrical to fusiform, 5–10 µm long, dark olive brown by transmitted light. Capillitium absent. Spores pink in mass, hyaline to greyish or yellowish pink by transmitted light, minutely roughened, with a diffuse thinner area on one side, 11–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium translucent pink.

This species has been recorded from Australia (Mitchell 1995), Europe (Nannenga Bremekamp 1991), and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969; Whitney 1980). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing in moist chamber culture on bark samples of Cedrus deodora and an unidentified tree. The bark samples were collected in Bay of Plenty and North Canterbury
Bark of living trees

Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Keller & Brooks (1977), Whitney (1980), Nannenga Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).

As the smallest of the three species of Echinostelium known from New Zealand, E. fragile is easily overlooked in moist chamber cultures.
Echinostelium minutum de Bary 1874
PDD 73122, 74952, 74955
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 250–550 µm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect or nodding, pale pink or white, 40–60 µm in diameter. Stalk translucent, colourless or pale yellow, 210–490 µm long. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium not persisting in mature fruiting bodies, except occasionally as a collar at the base of the sporotheca. Columella slender, short, not exceeding 10 µm in total height. Capillitium scanty, branched, capillitial branches with hooked free ends. Spores pink or white in mass, colourless by transmitted light, minutely roughened and with thickened, more or less circular, platelike areas evident in the spore wall, 7–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless

Probably cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but apparently uncommon in tropical forests (Stephenson, unpubl. data). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing in moist chamber culture on bark samples collected in Auckland, Taupo/Bay of Plenty, and North Canterbury. Also known from Nelson, Stewart Island, and Campbell Island.

Bark of living trees; occasionally occurring on leaf litter and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Whitney (1980), Nannenga- Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This is the most widespread and abundant species of Echinostelium. It is probably much more common in New Zealand than indicated by available records. There are two rather constant colour forms—white and pink—recognised in this species (Whitney 1980). Only the former has been observed thus far in New Zealand.
Enerthenema Bowman 1830
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium. Sporotheca globose. Peridium fugacious with the exception of an apical peridial plate at the apex[is this OK?]. Stalk fibrous. Hypothallus discoid or continuous for a group of sporangia. Columella reaching to the apex and connected to the peridial plate. Capillitium usually emerging exclusively from the top of the columella and the peridial plate, dichotomously branched, not (or rarely) anastomosing. Spores dark brown in mass.
Four species have been described in this genus, only one of which is known from New Zealand.
Enerthenema papillatum (Pers.) Rostaf. 1876
DWM 3136, 3160, 3181
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious to clustered, 1.0–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect, fuscous, becoming purplish brown or ferruginous as the spores are dispersed, 0.4–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk black, opaque, attenuate above, about half the total height of the sporotheca. Hypothallus membranous, discoid to contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless to black, sometimes inconspicuous. Peridium fugacious. Columella extending to the apex of the sporangium and there expanded as a small, shining, cup- or funnel-shaped apical peridial disk, not exceeding 0.2 mm in diameter. Capillitium attached to the apical peridial disk, the threads long, dark flexuous, sparsely branched. Spores dark brown to black in mass, greyish brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 10–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Although reported as probably cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), this species appears to be limited to temperate regions of the world. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing on bark samples of Pinus sp. in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Auckland and Taupo/Bay of Plenty. Also known from Campbell Island.
Decaying wood and bark; also appearing on tree bark (especially that from conifers) in moist chamber cultures.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The “May-pole” arrangement of columella and branches of the capillitium make this species easy to recognize.
Erionema aureum Penz. 1898
PDD 3645
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, sessile or pendant on a slender stalk, simple or branched, terete or flattened, often anastomosing and then forming a 3-dimensional network. Stalk, when present, membranous, strand-like, merging with the hypothallus. Hypothallus membranous, usually inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, pale yellow or olive specked with yellow, usually strongly calcareous but lime sometimes scanty. Capillitium elastic, composed of colourless tubules, the junctions mostly limeless but bearing a few yellow fusiform lime nodes, expanding to several times its original size upon breaking up of the peridium. Spores black in mass, pale violaceus brown by transmitted light, minutely punctate, 7–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless to chrome yellow.
Known from scattered localities in eastern Asia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and apparently very rare elsewhere in the world. Farr (1976) noted one collection from South America. Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected in Wellington in 1919.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Yamamoto (1998).
Fruiting of Erionema aureum sometimes resemble small aethalia of Fuligo septica in which the cortex is sparse or lacking, and Yamamoto (1998) proposed that it be transferred to the genus Fuligo, as F. aurea.
Erionema Penz. 1898
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, usually pendent on a slender stalk, sometimes sessile, simple to branched or anastomosing to form a three-dimensional network and then aethaliate. Capillitium elastic, consisting of numerous colourless tubules with mostly limeless junctions and a small number of lime nodes. Spores dark.
Fuligo cinerea (Schwein.) Morgan 1896
PDD 5172, 15875, 21996.
Fruiting body an aethalium, rather thin, broadly effused or subplasmodiocarpous, 0.5–6.0 cm in extent or forming a network 15 cm or more across. Cortex firm, crustose, rather thick, white. Hypothallus membranous, consisting of several layers, white, calcareous. Capillitium consisting of large, irregular, white lime nodes connected by hyaline threads. Spores black in mass, dark purple brown in transmitted light, varying from globose to elliptical, 11–15 µm or 10–12 x 14–16 µm in diameter, minutely to strongly spiny. Plasmodium translucent white to milky white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but absent or very rare at high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from Dunedin. Also known from Auckland.
Usually occurring on piles of decaying straw and animal dung; also found in association with other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
 
This species is easily distinguished from Fuligo septica on the basis of the thin, effused aethalium and the large, elliptical spores.
Fuligo Haller 1768
Fruiting body an aethalium, often solitary to closely gregarious, irregularly shaped and sometimes very large, consisting of a mass of interwoven, irregular calcareous tubules surrounded by a sterile cortex. Hypothallus often spongy, consisting of several membranous layers, usually forming a distinct margin around the aethalium, colourless to white and then calcareous. Cortex usually well developed but occasionally absent, fragile, usually strongly calcareous. Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of a system of lime nodes and hyaline, tubular connecting threads, often rather scanty. Spores dark in mass.
The genus Fuligo contains 10 species (Lado 2001), two of which have been recorded from New Zealand.
Fuligo septica (L.) F.H. Wigg. 1780
PDD 68487, 68756, 72947
Fruiting body an aethalium, solitary to gregarious but usually not widely separated, pulvinate, usually relatively large, 2–20 cm wide or long and 1–3 cm thick. Cortex usually fairly thick, calcareous, fragile, white to pale or bright pink or red to bright yellow. Capillitium consisting of white, yellow or reddish fusiform lime nodes connected by hyaline threads, sometimes scanty. Spores dark grey or dull black in mass, light purplish brown by transmitted light, nearly smooth to minutely spiny, 6–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium usually yellow, sometimes white or creamy.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Aethalium septicum) from New Zealand by Berkeley (1855), based on a specimen collected by W. Colenso in Northland. Also known from the Kermadec Islands, Auckland (Kirk 1872), Coromandel, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Taupo, Wanganui, Wellington (Buchanan 1874), Gisborne, Hawkes Bay (Colenso 1887), Nelson, Westland, Fiordland, North Canterbury, Mid Canterbury (Armstrong 1880), South Canterbury (Lister & Lister 1905), Otago Lakes, Dunedin (Lister & Lister 1905), and the Auckland Islands.
Decaying wood and bark, forest floor litter, wood debris, and soil; sometimes fruiting on living plants.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Fuligo septica is one of the most common, conspicuous, and best known of all myxomycetes. It is exceedingly variable, and several forms that appear to be consistently different from what is considered the typical expression for the species have been recognised as distinct taxonomic entities (either varieties or separate species) by some authors (e.g., Neubert et al. 1995, Ing 1999).
Hemitrichia calyculata (Speg.) M.L. Farr 1974
PDD 68483, 75452, 75457
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 1–3 mm tall. Sporotheca turbinate to subglobose, erect, bright to dark yellow, 0.8–1.2 mm in diameter (when expanded). Stalk slender, reddish brown to black, 0.5–2.0 mm long. Hypothallus irregular or discoid, light to dark reddish brown. Peridium membranous, yellow, persisting in the lower half as a distinct calyculus that often has a petaloid margin. Capillitium consisting of a dense network of smooth yellow threads, marked with four or five spiral bands, 5–7 µm in diameter. Spores dull yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, minutely spiny to delicately reticulate, 7–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow, becoming red during fruiting.
Probably cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but particularly common in tropical forests (e.g., Stephenson et al. 2001). Not recorded in print as occurring in New Zealand but represented by specimens collected in Northland, Auckland, and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood and (less commonly) bark, especially that from broadleaf trees.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999).
Early published records of Hemitrichia clavata in New Zealand probably refer to this species. Hemitrichia calyculata and H. clavata are very close morphologically and were not accorded status as separate species until relatively recently (Farr 1974). The major distinguishing feature is the stalk. In H. clavata, it is rather thick and widens gradually to form the deep trumpet-shaped base of the sporotheca. In contrast, H. calyculata has a narrow stalk that widens suddenly to form a shallow cup at the base of the sporotheca. However, intermediate forms are occasionally encountered, so this distinction is not always absolute. In general, fruitings of H. calyculata consist of sporangia that are more loosely grouped than is the case for H. clavata, in which the sporangia tend to be crowded together. Most authors have described the latter species as having a somewhat rougher capillitium, although the value of this characteristic has been questioned (Farr 1976).
Hemitrichia clavata (Pers.) Rostaf. 1873 [1873-74]
PDD 6341
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious to crowded, 1–2 mm tall. Sporotheca broadly clavate or pyriform, olivaceous yellow, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Peridium shining, dehiscent above, one-half to two-thirds remaining as a goblet-shaped calyculus, marked within by rather coarse papillae or broken reticulations. Stalk rather short, attenuated downwards and merging gradually above into the base of the sporotheca, hollow, filled with spore-like cells, yellow above and shading into reddish brown below. Hypothallus contiguous to a group of sporangia, thin, reddish brown. Capillitium yellow or somewhat olivaceous, somewhat elastic, the threads 4.5–6.5 µm in diameter, closely wound with 4 or 5 spirals, minutely pilose, with occasional free ends, these often swollen, obtuse or tipped with a broad-based apiculus 2–4 µm long. Spores pale yellow by transmitted light, globose or subglobose, finely warted, the warts frequently forming a reticulum that is usually visible only under high magnification, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Apparently limited largely to temperate and cool temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen collected in Bay of Plenty.
Decaying wood
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Hemitrichia calyculata and H. clavata are sometimes difficult to distinguish, but the former is much more common. Virtually all of the collections from New Zealand that have been assigned to H. clavata in the past actually represent H. calyculata.
Hemitrichia minor G. Lister 1911
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked to occasionally sessile sporangium (or more rarely somewhat plasmodiocarpous), scattered or in small groups, 0.3–0.8 mm tall (or up to 2 mm long when plasmodiocarpous). Sporotheca globose to subglobose or pulvinate when sessile, dull yellow to yellowish brown, sometimes glossy, darkening with age, dotted with large verrucae, 0.2–0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, thick, rugulose, black, flared at the apex, up to two-thirds the total height. Hypothallus inconspicouous. Peridium single, membranous, minutely papillose or bearing granular deposits and usually conspicuous, dark, rarely pale warts, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium a loose, flaccid reticulum consisting of filaments 2–3 µm in diameter, with numerous expansion and constrictions, marked with many, often spirally arranged, blunt spines or warts and sometimes spines up to 2 µm long. Spores yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, minutely warted, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery cinnamon.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on specimens collected in Dunedin and South Canterbury.
Dead plant debris, bark of living trees, and the dung of herbivorous animals.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969); Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991); Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The prominent dark, peg-like warts on the peridium are distinctive and make this an easy species to identify. Two varieties have been recognised for Hemitrichia minor; var. pardina for forms with the conspicuous warts on the peridium, and var. minor for forms lacking these warts. Only H. minor var. pardina is known from New Zealand. Ing (1999) proposed that this variety be recognised as a distinct species (H. pardina).
Hemitrichia Rostaf. 1873
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium or a plasmodiocarp. Stalk, when present, solid or filled with spore-like vesicles or amorphous material. Hypothallus discoid, irregular or contiguous for a group of fruiting bodies, often not evident, membranous. Peridium membranous or subcartilaginous, usually persistent below as an irregular cup, usually thinner and more or less fugacious above. Capillitium consisting of tubular threads united more or less completely into an elastic net, with or without free ends and ornamented with two or more usually conspicuous spiral bands. Spores red, orange, or yellow in mass, bright and pale by transmitted light.
Hemitrichia serpula (Scop.) Rostaf. ex Lister 1894
PDD 68669, 68670, 68779.
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, the individual elements terete, 0.4–0.6 mm in diameter, these branching freely and usually forming a definite reticulum that is often several centimetres in extent. Peridium persistent, membranous, transparent, somewhat thicker below and splitting longitudinally to expose the spore mass, bright yellow to rusty or brownish yellow. Hypothallus usually evident, contiguous for the entire plasmodiocarp, ranging from colourless to reddish brown. Capillitium a tangled mass of sparingly branched yellow threads, spiny, 4–6 µm in diameter, with spiny free tips. Spores golden yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, coarsely reticulate, 10–16 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white, then becoming yellow when fruiting.
Reported as cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), although apparently uncommon at high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000) and sometimes exceedingly abundant in tropical forests (Stephenson et al. 2001). First reported (as Hemiarcyria serpula) from New Zealand by Colenso (1885), based on specimens collected in Rangitikei/Hawkes Bay. Also known from Auckland, Taupo, Wellington, Buller, Westland, and Southland.
Decaying wood, wood debris, and old decaying palm fronds.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969); Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994); Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species is one of the more distinctive and easily recognised of all myxomycetes.
Lamproderma atrosporum Meyl. 1910
PDD 74967, 74969, 74970.
Fruiting body a stalked or (occasionally) sessile sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 1–2.5 mm tall. Sporotheca pulvinate or globose to elliptic or obovate, 0.6–1.2 mm in diameter. Stalk usually present, black, rather short, stout, but sometimes equalling or exceeding the sporotheca in height. Hypothallus discoid, membranous. Peridium dark purple black with a silvery sheen, fragile, fugacious, breaking up above into small fragments that tend to adhere to the capillitium, usually thicker and persistent at the base. Columella cylindrical or clavate, often stout, reaching nearly to the center of the sporotheca. Capillitium olive-brown to black, the tips expanded, particularly below, into funnel-shaped yellowish-brown enlargements that are attached to the peridium, fragments of which may persist as conspicuous, irregular disks or plates. Spores black in mass, dark by transmitted light, coarsely echinate, the short, blunt spines sometimes arranged in sinuous lines over a portion of the surface, forming an indistinct and incomplete reticulation, 12–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium black.
Widely distributed in the mountains of western North America and Europe (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Kowalski 1970), where it is associated with melting snowbanks in late spring and early summer. First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen collected in Westland. Also known from Marlborough, Central Otago, and Mackenzie.
Living plants and plant debris at the edges of snowbanks in alpine regions.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The peridium in Lamproderma atrosporum is usually fugacious, but minute fragments remain attached to the expanded tips the capillitium (especially below), and this feature alone makes this species relatively easy to identify.
Lamproderma columbinum (Pers.) Rostaf. 1873 [1873-74]
PDD 4249, FWVA 12807, 12810.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered or gregarious, 2–5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose or ellipsoid, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk relatively long, usually at least two-thirds or more of the total height, slender, nearly cylindrical, black. Hypothallus discoid, dark purple. Peridium persistent (especially at the base of the sporotheca), rich violet or purple with a metallic iridescence. Columella cylindrical, with a conic or somewhat blunt tip, one-third to one-half the height of the sporotheca. Capillitium originating from all parts of the columella, rigid, sparingly forked at the centre, then anastomosing to form a large-meshed open net, brownish purple. Spores black in mass, smoky brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Known from Europe, temperate North America, Asia, and Australia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from Dunedin.
Decaying wood, usually that of conifers, almost invariably with bryophytes also present; also known to occur on mats of bryophytes over peat or soil and on moss-covered rocks.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The relatively long stalk and the fact that this species is almost invariably associated with bryophytes are usually enough to recognise Lamproderma columbinum.
Lamproderma echinulatum (Berk.) Rostaf. 1876
PDD 68794, 68804, BPI 820228.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, loosely clustered, total height 2–4 mm. Sporotheca globose to cylindrical-ovate, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical or subulate, black, 1–3 mm long. Hypothallus discoid, dark brown. Peridium shining, steel blue with grey or green iridescence, membranous, persistent. Columella cylindrical, obtuse, reaching to about one–half the height of the sporotheca. Capillitium arising mainly from apex of columella, stout, sparingly forked and anastomosing, purplish brown, slender and colourless at the tips. Spores dark grey or brownish grey, with prominent long black spines, 15–20 µm in diameter. Plasmodium opaque white.
DISTRIBUTION: Reported from widely scattered localities in North America, Europe, and Asia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Lamproderam listeri) from New Zealand by Massee (1892), but without giving a specific locality. Also known from Hawkes Bay (Colenso 1894), Fiordland, Dunedin (Rawson 1937), and the Snares Islands (Fineran 1969).
Decaying wood, often with bryophytes present.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969).
This species appears to be rare in most regions of the world but can be relatively common in some areas of Fiordland in late autumn. The large spores with long spines are distinctive.
Lamproderma ovoideum Meyl. 1932
PDD 74968, 74972.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, clustered or scattered, up to 2 mm total height. Sporotheca ovoid, 0.8–1.2 mm broad and 1.0–1.8 mm high. Stalk up to 0.5 mm long, usually broad and triangular at the base, black. Hypothallus dark brown at the centre and light brown at the margin, often contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium black, usually persistent, at least in the lower part, which forms a cup. Columella cylindrical, somewhat thickened at the apex, attaining up to three-quarters the height of the sporotheca, black, usually with membranous expansions in the upper part. Capillitium arising from the entire length of the columella, branches stout, rigid, dark brown to black, forming a dense net at the periphery, with many pointed, paler free tips. Spores black in mass, dark brown by transmitted light, spiny, 13–16 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
This species was described originally from Europe and has since been reported from North America, Asia and subantarctic Macquarie Island (Stephenson et al. 1992). First reported from New Zealand by Stephenson and Johnston (2003), based on specimens collected in Mid Canterbury and Central Otago.
Living plants and various types of plant debris, usually near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Neubert et al. (2000).
Lamproderma ovoideum is a difficult species to define and probably represents one member of a species complex that also includes L. carestiae (a species not known from New Zealand) and L. sauteri (Kowalski 1970, Neubert et al. 2000). The combination of an ovoid sporotheca and relatively large, spiny spores distinguish this species from other members of the genus known from New Zealand.
Lamproderma Rostaf. 1873
Fruiting body a stalked (or more rarely sessile) sporangium. Sporotheca globose or prolate. Stalk short to (for a few species) relatively long, black, consisting of netted and longitudinal fibres, usually opaque in transmitted light. Hypothallus discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia, membranous. Peridium membranous, persistent, often iridescent, eventually dehiscing irregularly, usually leaving a collar around the stalk. Columella well developed, usually relatively thick and reaching to about half way up the sporotheca, often truncate. Capillitium arising from the apex of the columella or more rarely from the whole length of the columella, the branches dividing a few times and often anastomosing to form a net, usually with many free ends, which in some species are connected to the peridium. Spores in mass dark brown to black.
More than 40 species of Lamproderma have been described (Lado 2001), most of which are montane. Six species are known from New Zealand. The genus was first reported from New Zealand by Colenso (1887), based on an old and apparently weathered specimen (from Hawkes Bay) that could not be determined to species.
Lamproderma scintillans (Berk. & Broome) Morgan 1894
PDD 48182.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered, 1–2 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, 0.3–0.4 mm in diameter. Stalk relatively long, usually at least two-thirds of the total height, slender, nearly cylindrical, black or dark brown. Hypothallus discoid, black. Columella cylindrical, truncate, not exceeding the center of the sporotheca. Peridium persistent, metallic silvery, blue or bronze iridescent. Capillitium dense, consisting of rigid, straight, sparingly branched and anastomosing threads with numerous free ends, branches of the capillitium pallid or colourless as they leave the columella, elsewhere brown. Spores brown in mass, violet-grey by transmitted light, regularly and distinctly warted, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Although reported as probably cosmopolitan by Farr (1976), this species appears to be absent from high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from Dunedin.
Dead leaves; less common on wood, dung, and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (2000).
Lamproderma scintillans is the only nonalpine species of Lamproderma that is likely to be found on litter.
Lamproderma splendens Meyl. 1929
PDD 74973.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious or crowded, total height 1.0–1.8 mm. Sporotheca globose, 0.8–1.2 mm in diameter. Stalk short, black, 0.3–0.6 mm long and usually thicker at the base. Hypothallus reddish brown, usually contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium rather persistent, lead grey, silvery to violet, iridescent, the lower portion with darker patches, dehiscence irregular, breaking up into unevenly sized pieces. Columella reaching to about the centre of the sporotheca, cylindrical, the tip clavate or not thickened, black, opaque. Capillitium arising from the tip and the upper third of the columella, the inner portion more or less straight, flattened and spirally twisted, the outer portion branched and anastomosed to form a dense, irregularly wavy net and connected to the peridium, brown near the columella and colourless outwards, so that the empty sporotheca appears white. Spores dark brown in mass, brown by transmitted light, densely and finely spiny (the spines less than 0.5 µm long), 10–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.[
Reported from numerous localities in the mountains of western North America and Europe (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Stephenson and Johnston (2003), based on a collection from Mid Canterbury.
Decaying wood, wood debris, and dead leaves (usually of conifers); occasionally fruiting on low shrubs and other living plants.
Neubert et al. (2000).
Lamproderma splendens is sometimes considered as a synonym of L. arcyrioides, a species not known from New Zealand. The most useful features for identification are the short stalk and the tough, rather persistent peridium.[
Leocarpus fragilis (Dicks.) Rostaf. 1874
PDD 20691, 28613, 69033
Fruiting body a stalked or nearly sessile sporangium, gregarious or clustered, 2–4 mm tall. Sporotheca short-cylindrical to obovate to subglobose, 0.6–1.6 mm in diameter. Stalk weak, often flattened, pale yellow or ochraceous, essentially representing an extension of the hypothallus. Hypothallus membranous, pale ochraceous, contiguous for a group of sporangium, merging into the stalk. Peridium consisting of three layers, the outermost layer cartilaginous, smooth, shining, brittle, pale yellow to ochraceous to chestnut brown or deep maroon, the middle layer calcareous, and the inner layer membranous, hyaline. Capillitium of two types, the first consisting of a network of slender, colourless, flattened tubules usually expanded at the junctions, the second represented by a system of rigid, branching, white calcareous nodes, sometimes massed in the centre of the sporotheca as a pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, brown by transmitted light, with a paler area at one side, coarsely warted, 12–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but most common in cool temperate regions of the world and essentially absent from the tropics (Farr 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens collected in Auckland, Waikato, Buller, and Central Otago. Also known from Taupo, Nelson, and Fiordland.
floor litter and wood debris; sometimes fruiting on living plants.
Leocarpus Link 1809
Fruiting body a sporangium. Peridium consisting of three layers, the outer layer thin, brittle, and cartilaginous, the middle layer thick and limy, and the inner layer membranous. Columella absent. Capillitium reticulate, in part limeless and in part filled with globular lime, badhamioid, connected to the inner layer of the peridium, often forming a pseudocolumella. Spores in mass dark brown to nearly black.
Two species have been described for the genus Leocarpus (Lado 2001). One of these is relatively common and widespread throughout the world, while the other is known only from Australia.
Lepidoderma carestianum (Rabenh.) Rostaf. 1874
PDD 74394, 74395, CHSC 50088
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp (or less commonly) a sessile or subsessile sporangium, scattered to loosely clustered; plasmodiocarps broad and flat or narrow and elongated, up to 15 mm long and 0.5–1.5 mm in diameter, often shortened and merging into pulvinate, elongated or ellipsoid sporangia. Stalk, when present, short, thick, dark. Hypothallus membranous, thin, transparent to yellow-brown or dark brown, contiguous for a group of fruiting bodies, often loosely covered with lime scales. Peridium single, subcartilaginous to tough-membranous, dark brown or brownish grey, more or less covered with white or yellowish, usually small, crystalline scales, often so closely aggregated as to form a nearly continuous crust, dehiscence irregular. Columella usually present but highly variable, hemispherical, globose, clavate or forming an elongated ridge, white, cream-coloured to light brown. Capillitium abundant, consisting of dark purple-brown, rather slender, somewhat branched and anastomosing threads, often bearing dark, bead-like thickenings. Spores dark purple-brown to black in mass, purple-brown by transmitted light, rather closely and irregularly warted, globose to broadly elliptical, 10–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white, but also reported as dingy white or black.
Reported from widely scattered localities in the mountains of western North America and Europe (Kowalski 1975). First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen collected in Westland. Also known from North Canterbury and Otago Lakes (Stephenson & Johnston 2003).
Living plants, leaf litter and various types of plant debris, usually near melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Lepidoderma carestianum is typically plasmodiocarpous, although sporangiate fruiting bodies are sometimes encountered. Some authors (e.g., Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999) have considered the latter to represent a separate species, L. chailletii. The only other species of Lepidoderma that might be confused with L. carestianum is L. granuliferum, but the latter has lime nodes in the capillitium and larger spores.
Lepidoderma crustaceum Kowalski 1967
PDD 74403, 74404, 74405
Fruiting body a sessile (or less commonly stalked) sporangium (or rarely somewhat plasmodiocarpous), densely to loosely clustered, globose to subglobose, 1.0–1.5 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, short, weak, translucent, appearing to represent an extension of the hypothallus. Hypothallus well developed, horny and opaque or thin, membranous, contiguous for a group of sporangia. Columella absent but a calcareous, typically conical, buff or pale cinnamon-brown pseudocolumella often present. Capillitium scanty, consisting of sparsely branched and anastomosing dark purple-brown threads, these paler and more slender toward the tips and bearing dark, spherical or fusiform expansions. Spores dark purple-brown in mass, purple-brown by transmitted light, prominently and densely spiny, occasionally tending to be agglutinated and discharged from the open sporangium in a mass, 11–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Described originally from western North America (Kowalski 1967) and also known from Europe (Schnittler 1999). First reported from New Zealand by Stephenson & Johnston (2003), based on specimens collected in Central Otago.
Living plants (including bryophytes), litter, and other types of plant debris, usually near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Kowalski (1967).
This is the only species of Lepidoderma known from New Zealand in which the fruiting body is a sporangium. Moreover, the pale violaceous brown to buff colour of the outer peridium is distinctive.
Lepidoderma de Bary 1873
Fruiting body a sessile (or less commonly stalked) sporangium or plasmodiocarp. Stalk, when present, either thick and furrowed or representing an extension of the hypothallus. Hypothallus membranous to thick and spongy. Peridium single or double, thickly membranous to cartilaginous, covered with crystalline lime scales, the individual scales separate and distinct or united laterally to form a nearly or completely continuous crust. Columella absent or large and usually hemispherical. Capillitium consisting of branching and anastomosing threads, these typically limeless or in one species containing large and expanded lime nodes. Spores purple brown to black.
Eight species of Lepidoderma have been described. A key to many of these is provided by Kowalski (1971). Three species have been recorded from New Zealand.
Lepidoderma granuliferum (W. Phillips) R.E. Fr. 1906
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, scattered or (less commonly) clustered, simple or branched and often anastomosing, rarely exceeding 10 mm in length. Hypothallus membranous, thin, transparent but usually impregnated with lime scales, contiguous for a group of fruiting bodies. Peridium usually double but occasionally single, outer layer membranous to subcartilaginous, light brown to pink when the lime scales are sparse, usually covered with a thick layer of densely compacted lime scales, inner layer membranous, thin, transparent and iridescent to thick, opaque and dull, medium brown or dark brown, dehiscence irregular. Columella often absent but, when present, represented by a small raised ridge extending along main axis of the fruiting body. Capillitium abundant, coarse, consisting of pale yellow to yellow-brown threads, these branching and anastomosing to form an intricate network with conspicous expanded nodes, these filled with large masses of crystalline lime. Spores purple-brown in mass, violet brown by transmitted light, in mass, dark yellow-brown by transmitted light, minutely but densely spiny, 15–18 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Known from a number of localities in Europe and western North America (Kowalski 1971, Novozhilov & Schnittler 1996). First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen collected in Westland. Also known from Central Otago.
Plant debris or sometimes on living plants, usually near melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Licea biforis Morgan 1893
 DWM 2734, 3050a, 3155
 Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or sometimes plasmodiocarpous), scattered to gregarious, fusiform, somewhat compressed and occasionally branched, yellow-brown to dark brown or nearly black, 0.1–0.3 mm wide and 0.3–0.8 mm long. Peridium persistent, membranous, thin, dehiscence by means of a preformed longitudinal slit. Spores yellow-brown or brown to almost white in mass, clear yellow to almost colourless by transmitted light, nearly smooth to minutely roughened, 9–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white, becoming brown.
 This species has been reported from Asia, Africa, Australia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Mitchell 1995, Yammoto 1998, Ukkola 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing in bark samples placed in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Bay of Plenty, North Canterbury, and Otago Lakes.
 Bark of living trees and leaf litter
 Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. 1993, Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
 No other species of Licea has sessile, elongated (canoe-shaped) sporangia opening by a longitudinal slit
Licea castanea G. Lister 1911
 DWM 3062.
 Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or occasionally somewhat subplasmodiocarpous), scattered, round-pulvinate to elongated, at first chestnut or pale brown, becoming blackish brown with age, smooth or wrinkled, 0.1–0.9 mm long and 0.1–0.4 mm wide. Peridium somewhat cartilaginous, nearly colourless or pale brown, often overlaid by a more or less continuous layer of dark granules, dehiscence along definite preformed sutures forming plates or stellate lobes whose margins are often marked with a row of minute warts about 1 µm in diameter. Spores pallid to brown in mass, pale yellow to pale brown by transmitted light, smooth or nearly so, paler on one side where the walls are thinner, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium hyaline, then brown
 Licea castanea is known from Asia, Europe, and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Yamamoto 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected from the bark of Hoheria sp. in North Canterbury.
 Bark of living trees; also sometimes occurring on dead wood
 Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The yellow-brown to chestnut colour of the sporangium and the smooth spores from other similar species of Licea.
Licea marginata Nann.-Bremek. 1965
DWM 3174
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered to gregarious, depressed pulvinate to elongated or subglobose, dark brown to dull black, 0.1–0.2 mm in diameter and up to three times as long as wide, total height not exceeding 0.25 mm. Peridium thin, translucent, yellow-brown by transmitted light, but coated with dark granular material that usually extends around the base of the sporangium, forming a dark rim about 0.05 mm wide, dehiscence by a longitudinal split, the edges curling inward after the spores are shed. Spores at first pale rose and then brown in mass, by transmitted light at first very pale rose and then brown, the walls thin, minutely spiny, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium hyaline, then brown.
This species was described originally from Europe (Nannenga-Bremekamp 1965) and has since been collected in eastern North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing on bark samples placed in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Auckland.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered to gregarious, depressed pulvinate to elongated or subglobose, dark brown to dull black, 0.1–0.2 mm in diameter and up to three times as long as wide, total height not exceeding 0.25 mm. Peridium thin, translucent, yellow-brown by transmitted light, but coated with dark granular material that usually extends around the base of the sporangium, forming a dark rim about 0.05 mm wide, dehiscence by a longitudinal split, the edges curling inward after the spores are shed. Spores at first pale rose and then brown in mass, by transmitted light at first very pale rose and then brown, the walls thin, minutely spiny, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium hyaline, then brown.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The distinguishing feature of Licea marginata is the ring of peridial deposits found around the base of the sporangium.
Licea minima Fr. 1829
DWM 2787.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered to gregarious, subglobose to pulvinate or angular, umber or reddish brown to nearly black, 0.2–0.4 mm in diameter. Peridium opaque, with prominent ridges, these breaking apart into angular plates with dotted margins, plates becoming petaloid or widely reflexed in older specimens. Spores dark reddish brown in mass, smoky ferruginous to olivaceous brown by transmitted light, the spore wall thinner and paler on one side, minutely warted, 10–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery drab or grey, turning yellowish or rosaceous brown as the fruiting bodies are formed.
Probably cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but apparently less common in the tropics. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing on bark of Nothofagus sp. placed in a moist chamber culture. The bark was collected in Otago Lakes.
Decaying coniferous wood; also appearing on bark from coniferous trees placed in moist chamber cultures.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This is one of the few species of Licea that is fairly easy to detect in the field. There are several other species of Licea that possess a peridium consisting of prominent platelets with clearly distinct lines of dehiscence. Only two of these (L. pusilla and L. pygmaea) are known from New Zealand. The former has appreciably larger spores than L. minima, while L. pygmaea can be distinguished on the basis of spore colour (reddish brown in L. minima and black in L. pygmaea).
Licea operculata (Wingate) G.W. Martin 1942
DWM 3150.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, erect, 0.4–1.2 mm total height. Sporotheca urn-shaped or subglobose, dull brown to almost black below but lighter above, 0.1–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk subcylindrical, dark, somewhat grooved, rough from granular inclusions, usually two-thirds or more of the total height. Peridium cartilaginous, smooth, somewhat gelatinous when wet, opaque except for the top, dehiscence by a thin, flat, yellow and often iridescent operculum. Spores pale yellow in mass, colourless by transmitted light, nearly smooth, 8–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium dull orange to orange brown.
Apparently cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing on bark samples placed in moist chamber cultures. The bark samples were collected in Auckland and North Canterbury.
Bark of living trees; also occasionally appearing on samples of litter placed in moist chamber cultures.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Because of the relatively long stalk, fruiting bodies of Licea operculata tend to be much more conspicuous and thus less likely to be overlooked than those of most other species of Licea.
Licea parasitica (Zukal) G.W. Martin 1942
DWM 3150.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered to gregarious, subglobose, pulvinate or occasionally somewhat elongated, dark brownish grey, 0.05–0.2 mm in diameter. Peridium thick, opaque, gelatinous when moist, the lower portion with abundant deposits of granular refuse matter present, dehiscence typically by a well-defined operculum, which is smooth or areolate above, minutely papillate within; when the operculum is lacking, dehiscence is apical and irregular. Spores brown in mass, by transmitted light smoky yellowish brown on one side, pallid on the other, subglobose, thick-walled, nearly smooth, 11–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery orange, yellow or grey.
Widely distributed in North America and Europe (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969); also known from Australia (Mitchell 1995). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing on bark samples placed in moist chamber cultures. The bark samples were collected in Bay of Plenty.
Bark of living trees
In temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, Licea parasitica commonly appears on bark samples placed in moist chamber cultures, where the fruiting bodies are often associated with the epiphytic bryophytes and lichens that also occur in such substrates. Fruiting bodies require a relatively longer time to develop than is the case for most species of Licea and remain rather gelatinous until almost mature
Licea pusilla Schrad. 1797
DWM 3102, 3281.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, gregarious, globose-pulvinate on a somewhat restricted base, dark purplish brown to brown to almost black, shining, 0.2–1.5 mm in diameter. Peridium thin, dark translucent, dehiscent from above into pre-formed lobes, each of the latter with a row of warts along the margin. Spores dark olive in mass, light olivaceous brown by transmitted light, the wall thinner on one side, densely and minutely warted, 15–17 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery brown or dull yellow
First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing on bark samples placed in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Bay of Plenty and Mid Canterbury.
Dead wood and bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species and Licea minima are very similar in appearance, but the latter has appreciably smaller spores.
Licea pygmaea (Meyl.) Ing 1982
DWM 2787.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered to gregarious, globose to pulvinate, somewhat angular, brownish black to black, 0.05–0.4 mm in diameter. Peridium thick, tough, somewhat waxy when wet but becoming cartilaginous upon drying, opaque, with prominent ridges, these breaking apart into angular plates with a row of warts along the margins, plates becoming petaloid or widely reflexed in older specimens. Spores black in mass, greyish to greenish yellow by transmitted light, minutely and densely spiny or warted, with a diffuse thinner area on one side, 12–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium pale brown.
Reported from widely scattered localities in North America and Europe (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing on bark samples of Nothofagus sp. placed in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Otago Lakes.
Bark of living trees.
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species is sometimes considered as a variety of Licea pusilla but has smaller spores.
Licea Schrad. 1797
 Fruiting body usually a sessile or (less commonly) stalked sporangium but sometimes taking the form of a short plasmodiocarp. Stalk, when present, relatively stout. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium varying from thin to thick, often becoming encrusted with a dark outer layer, sometimes clearly double. Pseudocapillitium lacking. Spores yellow-brown to reddish brown or almost black in mass, nearly colourless to smoky yellow, reddish grey or smoky grey or olivaceous by transmitted light, often paler on one side, nearly smooth or minutely warted or spiny.
The fruiting bodies produced by most species of Licea are rather small and usually go undetected in the field, although they commonly appear on bark and other substrates placed in moist chamber cultures. For some reason, Licea does not seem to be particularly common in New Zealand.
More than 50 species of Licea have been described worldwide (Lado 2001), but only nine of these are known from New Zealand.
Lycogala epidendrum (L.) Fr. 1829
PDD 18263, 28784, 68828.
Fruiting body an aethalium, usually several to many in a single fruiting, these scattered to crowded, subglobose to depressed-spherical or irregular from pressure, pinkish grey or yellowish brown to deep olivaceous or nearly black, 0.3–1.5 cm broad. Cortex warted or merely roughened, rather thin and fragile, especially above. Pseudocapillitium composed of long, branching and anastomosing flattened tubules marked with conspicuous transverse folds and wrinkles. Spores at first pink or grey in mass, changing to pale ochraceous or pallid, colourless by transmitted light, reticulate, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium pink to coral red or orange to cream coloured.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Cooke (1879), based on a specimen collected in Wellington. Also known from Northland, Auckland, Coromandel, Bay of Plenty, Taupo, Wanganui, Hawkes Bay (Colenso 1887), Nelson, Buller, Westland, Fiordland, Mid Canterbury, South-land, and Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905) but undoubtedly present elsewhere.
Decaying wood and (less commonly) bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson and Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This is one of the most widely distributed and best-known myxomycetes. Lycogala epidendrum is rather variable both morphologically and in the colour of the plasmodium, and some authors (e.g., Nannenga-Bremekamp 1996, Ing 1999) have separated out several of the more consistently occurring forms as varieties or even distinct species. In such cases, the concept of Lycogala epidendrum is restricted to those forms characterized by a pure red or carmine plasmodium and a spore mass that is grey when fresh, while forms with a plasmodium that is orange or pink to cream and spores that are pink when fresh are recognized as L. terrestre. However, the distinction between the two forms has not been made in most previous studies. It appears that both occur in New Zealand
Lycogala exiguum Morgan 1893
PDD 57166.
Fruiting body an aethalium, subglobose, scattered or gregarious, usually dark to almost black, 2–4 mm in diameter. Cortex yellow-brown but thickly covered with dark, purplish brown or black scales, these divided into distinct chambers (i.e., and thus tessellate), dehiscence by an apical tear but soon becoming irregular. Pseudocapillitum consisting of colourless or yellow branching tubules arriving[?deriving] from the inner portion of the cortex, often smooth at the base and roughened or transversely wrinkled elsewhere, 2–10 µm in diameter. Spores ochraceous in mass, nearly colourless by transmitted light, marked by faint irregular warts and lines, sometimes appearing nearly smooth, 4.5–5.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium pink.
Reported to be cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but never common. First reported (as Lycogala epidendrum var. tessellatum) from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), but without specific locality data.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Lado & Pando (1997).
Lycogala exiguum has been regarded by some authors as a variety of L. epidendrum, although it is recognized as a separate species in most modern treatments of the myxomycetes. More recently, Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991) and Ing (1999) have suggested that forms previously assigned to L. epidendrum var. tessellatum be segregated from L. exiguum and assigned to a distinct species (L. confusum), which Ing (1999) described. If this concept is followed, the taxon reported from New Zealand would be listed under this new name.
Lycogala flavofuscum (Ehrenb.) Rostaf. 1873 [1873-74]
PDD 4361.
Fruiting body an aethalium, solitary or in small clusters of 2–5, often only partially separated, sessile and pulvinate to rounded or sometimes when developing on an inferior surface, pyriform and short-stalked, pyriform and appearing short-stipitat, silvery grey or ochraceous to purplish brown, mostly 2–4 cm in their largest dimension, occasionally much larger. Cortex nearly smooth, somewhat glossy, or minutely areolate, thick, brittle. Pseudocapillitium consisting of nearly colourless, branching and anastomosing tubules, wrinkled and papillose or nearly smooth, the larger branches 25–60 µm in diameter and the smaller ones 10–25 µm in diameter, the axils expanded, the ends free, rounded. Spores buff in mass, colourless by transmitted light, faintly reticulate, 5–6 µm in diameter. Plasmodium pale pink becoming buff, then pallid.
Reported from Europe, North America, South America, Africa and Asia but never common (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). Apparently, this is a species characteristic of temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury. Also known from Waikato and Otago Lakes
Decaying wood, often that of a tree that is still living and sometimes fruiting well above the ground.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1991), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Fruiting bodies of Lycogala flavofuscum are large enough to be confused with those of a small puffball, but the thick, brittle cortex is quite different from the peridium of a mature puffball.
Lycogala P. Micheli ex Adans. 1763
Fruiting body a hemispherical, spherical, pulvinate or oval aethalium, variable in diameter, 0.4–5.0 cm, crowded, gregarious or solitary. Hypothallus usually inconspicuous but sometimes forming a narrow fringe around the bases of individual aethalia. Cortex rarely membranous, usually thick and in that case consisting of two or more solid layers. Pseudocapillitium consisting of hollow branched tubules, the latter smooth or wrinked, colourless or pallid. Spores rather small, at first pink or grey but becoming pale ochraceous or almost colourless in transmitted light, the wall thin, covered with a fine-meshed reticulum consisting of narrow bands.
Five species have been described in the genus Lycogala (Lado 2001), and three of these are known from New Zealand.
Macbrideola declinata T.E. Brooks & H.W. Keller 1988
DWM 5527
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, solitary to scattered, 0.20–0.35 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, brown, 0.10–0.12 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical but with an expanded base, hollow, upper portion black, somewhat paler below. Hypothallus discoid, inconspicuous. Peridium persistent, metallic and then somewhat irridescent to dark purplish brown, the basal portion persisting as a small collar. Columella dark, opaque, reaching to about one-half to two-thirds the height of the sporotheca, there giving rise to 2–4 primary branches. Capillitium moderately abundant, lax, consisting of purplish brown threads, these extending at more or less right angles to the columella when short and tending to arch downward toward the base of the sporotheca when long. Spores brown in mass, pale violaceous by transmitted light, distinctly and unevenly spiny, 7–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Described originally from North America (Eliasson et al. 1988), this apparently uncommon species has been reported from too few localities for its worldwide distribution to be known completely. Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but appearing in moist chamber culture on bark samples from Nothofagus menziesii. The bark samples were collected in Southland. There are no previous records of Macbrideola declinata from the Southern Hemisphere.
Bark of living trees.
Eliasson et al. (1988).
Members of the genus Macbrideola belong to the special ecological group of myxomycetes associated with the bark surface of living trees and usually observed only in moist chamber cultures prepared with samples of bark. Most fruitings tend to consist of relatively few sporangia, and because these tend to be quite small, they are easily overlooked.
Macbrideola H.C. Gilbert 1934
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, typically minute. Sporotheca globose, usually brown. Stalk hollow, tubular, typically translucent, often with a yellow base. Hypothallus discoid or not apparent. Columella a continuation of the stalk, usually reaching at least the centre of the sporotheca. Peridium membranous, translucent, fugacious or (less commonly) persistent. Capillitium present or absent, when present varying from a few short branches of the columella to a very open globose net, usually arising from the tip of the columella, occasionally along the sides. Spores dark in mass, pallid, brown or violet-brown by transmitted light.
The genus Macbrideola consists of approximately 15 species worldwide (Lado 2001), several of which are known from only a single locality. Just one species has been collected in New Zealand.
Metatrichia floriformis (Schwein.) Nann.-Bremek. 1985
PDD 17619, 32432, 68476.
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely nearly sessile) sporangium, closely gregarious or fascicled in gregarious clusters, 1.5–2.0 mm tall. Sporotheca turbinate to pyriform, rosey brown or purplish red to almost black, 0.6–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk irregular, often flattened and repent, rugose, often shiny, clear deep red, translucent by transmitted light, especially above. Hypothallus membranous, contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless to reddish brown. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer granular, closely adherent to the membranous inner layer but often separating aerolately above and splitting into petal-like lobes below, persistent at the base. Capillitium brick red to brownish orange in mass, consisting of mostly simple, rarely branched elaters 4–6 µm in diameter at the centre and tapering gradually to the long, slender tips, bearing 5 or 6 smooth spirals. Spores bright orange in mass, pale red by transmitted light, densely and minutely spiny, 10–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium variously reported as white, purple-brown or black.
Predominantly found in coniferous forests in the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), but also known from South America (Arambarri 1975) and Australia (Mitchell 1992). First reported (as Trichia botrytis var. lateritia) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on specimens from Dunedin and Stewart Island. Also known from the Kermadec Islands, Auckland (Cheesman & Lister 1915), Taupo, Wellington, Nelson, Buller, Westland, Fiordland, North Canterbury, Mid Canterbury, South Canterbury, Mackenzie, Southland, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Island.
Decaying wood or bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Metatrichia floriformis is one of the most common myxomycetes in the forests of New Zealand. The brick red to brownish orange spore mass, the tendency of the peridium to form petal-like lobes in mature specimens, and the (usually) relatively long stalk are its major distinguishing features. It is not unusual to find a fruiting in which the individual sporangia have been colonised by the fungus Polycephalomyces tomentosus. The association of certain "myxomyceticolous" fungi with the fruiting bodies of myxomycetes is a common phenomenon, especially in regions (such as tropical rain forests and the west coast of the South Island in New Zealand) that are characterised by continuously high levels of moisture. This group of fungi is described in some detail by Rogerson & Stephenson (1993).
Metatrichia Ing 1964
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium, often unitied into clusters or occasionally aggregated to suggest a pseudoaethalium. Sporotheca obovate, pyriform to subcylindrical. Stalk short or sometimes exceeding the height of the sporotheca. Hypothallus red, usually contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium thick, cartilaginous, tough, each individual sporangium dehiscent by a preformed operculum. Capillitium consisting of free elaters, these unbranched, bearing prominent, strongly developed spines. Spores and capillitium deep orange-red to crimson in mass.
Six species have been described for this genus (Lado 2001), and two of these are known from New Zealand.
Metatrichia vesparium (Batsch) Nann.-Bremek. ex G.W. Martin & Alexop. 1969
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, gregarious to clustered, 1.0–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca obovate, usually firmly united into clusters, erect, wine-red to dark maroon or sometimes nearly black, individual units 0.4–0.7 mm in diameter. Hypothallus membranous, contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless to dark red. Peridium opaque, firm, shining, often with metallic reflections, dehiscence by a preformed dome-shaped operculum. Stalk solid, rather thick when supporting several sporothecae, brick red. Capillitium consisting of numerous long, free, rarely branched elaters, most of which are bent 180 degrees in the middle with the two halves coiled about one another, bearing three to five spiral bands and numerous spines 1–2 µm long, bright red to deep crimson, the tips blunt. Spores brownish red in mass, reddish orange by transmitted light, minutely warted, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium black but becoming deep red just prior to fruiting.
Common and widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphre and apparently less common in tropical regions and in the Southern Hemisphere. The first report of this species from New Zealand appears to have been that of Colenso (1891), which was based on a specimen (reported as ‘Hemiarcyria rubiginosa’) from Hawkes Bay. This name can not be applied with certainty to any taxon currently recognized (Lado & Pando 2001) but is likely to represent a corrupted version of Hemiarcyria rubiformis, an earlier name known to have been applied to what is now recognized as M. vesparium. The species also was reported from New Zealand (as Arcyria rubiformis) by Massee (1892), without giving a specific locality, and (as Hemitrichia vesparium) by Cheesman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen collected in Bay of Plenty.
Decaying wood or bark, particularly that from broadleaf trees; occasionally on dead leaves.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969); Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The clustered sporangia of Metatrichia vesparium, which resemble miniature paper wasp nests, are distinctive. However, the lack of any recent collections suggests that the species is uncommon in New Zealand.
Paradiacheopsis acanthodes (Alexop.) Nann.-Bremek. 1986
DWM 5483
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, solitary, 0.4–0.5 mm total height. Sporotheca globose or hemispherical, flattened below, dark brown, 0.2 mm in diameter. Stalk with a broad, fibrous base, dark, slender, tapering upward. Hypothallus discoid, thin, reddish brown. Peridium fugacious. Columella reaching about the centre of the sporotheca. Capillitium consisting of two or sometimes three slender, black branches arising from the tip of the columella and forking three or four times without anastomosing. Spores brown in mass, grey by transmitted light, globose, prominantly spiny (the spines up to 1 µm long), 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Known from Europe and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but appearing in a moist chamber culture prepared with bark samples from Nothofagus fusca. The samples were collected in Nelson.
Bark of living trees.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Ing (1999).
The conspicuous spines on the spores and the lax capillitium are the distinguishing features of this apparently rare species
Paradiacheopsis cribrata Nann.-Bremek. 1968
DWM 5500
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, solitary or occurring in small groups, 0.2–0.6 mm tall. Sporotheca spherical, dark brown to almost black, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk up to twice as long as the diameter of the sporotheca, hollow with intertwined fibres at the base, that become parallel above and there usually opaque and black. Hypothallus a colourless or pale yellow disk. Peridium fugacious, leaving a collar around the stalk. Columella dividing at the center of the sporotheca into a small number of main capillitial branches. Capillitium sparse, sturdy, branched 1–3 times and often forming a rather rigid, very fragmentary net on the surface of the sporotheca, with many free ends. Spores dark brown in mass, lilac-grey in transmitted light, 12–13 µm in diameter, covered with spines about 1 µm long. Plasmodium colourless.
Widespread in Europe (Lado 1999) and also known from North America (Kowalski 1987). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but appearing in a moist chamber culture prepared with bark samples from Nothofagus fusca. The samples were collected in Marlborough.
Bark of living trees.
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
This species and Paradiacheopsis acanthodes are rather similar morphologically, but the latter has a lax and much less extensive capillitium.
Paradiacheopsis fimbriata (G. Lister & Cran) Hertel ex Nann.-Bremek. 1975 [1974]
DWM 3053B, 3056B, 3125B
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered, 0.5–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect, at first black but becoming brown, 0.1–0.4 mm in diameter. Stalk black, expanded at the base and tapering toward, slender, straight or curved, 0.4–1.0 mm tall. Hypothallus discoid, brown, sometimes granular, often inconspicuous. Peridium persisting for a short period but then completely fugacious. Columella slender, reaching about the centre of the sporotheca and then ending abruptly. Capillitium a scanty tuft of simple or forking purplish brown threads, free or with a few anastomoses, slender at the base but with many of the tips greatly expanded. Spores dark reddish-brown in mass, dark lilac-grey in transmitted light, densely covered with fine warts, 12–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless.
Widely distributed in Europe (Ing 1999) and also known from Asia (Yamamoto 1998) and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing in moist chambers prepared with bark samples collected in Bay of Plenty, Taupo, and North Canterbury.
Bark of living trees.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
The conspicuously expanded tips of the capillitial threads are the distinguishing feature of this species. It has been recorded from the bark of many different kinds of trees and appears to be relatively common under even fairly acidic conditions (Ing 1999).
Paradiacheopsis Hertel 1954
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium. Sporotheca spherical or nearly so, colour determined by the spore mass. Stalk composed of intertwined fibres. Hypothallus discoid, usually brown. Peridium fugacious, except sometimes for a small collar around the stalk. Columella typically reaching to the centre of the sportotheca and there splitting up into the main branches of the capillitium. Capillitium dichotomously branched, hardly or not anastomosing. Spores brown.
Seven species have been described for this genus, four of which have been recorded from New Zealand
Paradiacheopsis solitaria (Nann.-Bremek.) Nann.-Bremek. 1975 [1974]
DWM 3158.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, solitary or in very small groups, 0.3–0.8 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect, dark brown, 0.2–0.4 mm in diameter. Hypothallus very small, inconspicuous. Stalk stout, one to one and a half times as long as the diameter of the sporotheca, with intertwined fibres at the base that become parallel above and there usually opaque and black. Peridium usually completely fugacious but sometimes leaving a collar around the stalk. Columella reaching the centre of the sporotheca and there dividing into a small number of main capillitial branches. Capillitium dark purple-brown, branched two or three time, free ends rather thick but not swollen. Spores dark brown in mass, grey-brown by transmitted light, covered with fine warts, 14–16 µm in diameter. Plasmodium translucent white.
Widely distributed in Europe (Ing 1999) and also known from Asia (Yamamoto 1998) and North America (Stephenson 1989). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing in moist chamber culture on bark samples collected in Auckland.
Bark of living trees.
Nannenga-Bremekmap (1991), Ing (1999
The distinguishing features of this species are the relatively stout stalk and the large spores.
Perichaena chrysosperma (Curr.) Lister 1894
PDD 15203
Fruiting body a sessile to subsessile sporangium (or sometimes forming a short plasmodiocarp), scattered to gregarious, subglobose or pulvinate to elongated, arcuate, annular, branched, or partly reticulate, ochraceous to dark reddish brown or nearly black, 0.2–0.5 mm in diameter and up to 1 mm long. Hypothallus colourless, often scanty. Stalk, when present, short, thick, dark. Peridium double, the outer layer subcartilaginous, sometimes marked by reticulate ridges, the inner layer membranous, thin and translucent, dehiscence irregular, areolate or, in globose and annular fruiting bodies, circumscissile. Capillitium variable in quantity, elastic when abundant, consisting of slender yellow filaments 2–4 µm in diameter, minutely to strongly spiny, with the spines up to 6 µm long. Spores bright yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, spiny, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white upon emerging, becoming yellowish-brown, pinkish grey, or rose.
osmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected in Auckland.
Decaying wood and bark; also occurring on bark of living tree, dead leaves, and less commonly on the dung of herbivorous animals.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The prominent spines on the capillitium distinguish this species from other members of the genus Perichaena. In moist chamber cultures, the “doughnut” shaped plasmodiocarps produced occasionally are distinctive.
Perichaena corticalis (Batsch) Rostaf. 1875
PDD16125, DWM 3142
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium or occasionally plasmodiocarpous, gregarious, subglobose to hemispherical or somewhat flattened, bright reddish brown to nearly black, 0.2–1.0 mm in diameter. Hypothallus contiguous for an entire fruiting, colourless to brown. Peridium double, the outer layer often impregnated with granular material and the inner layer membranous, dehiscence irregular to unevenly circumscissile, the latter condition producing a fairly distinct operculum. Capillitium yellow, usually scanty, consisting of slender, branched or simple threads, minutely warted or spiny, 1.5–4.0 µm in diameter, attached to the inner surface of the peridium and the operculum. Spores golden yellow in mass, bright yellow by transmitted light, minutely warted, 11–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery grey.
Reported to be cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but probably most common in temperate regions of the world. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens appearing on bark samples placed in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Bay of Plenty. Also known from Nelson.
Decaying wood and bark; occasionally fruiting on the dung of herbivorous animals.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Perichaena corticalis and P. chrysosperma are rather similar morphologically. However, fruitings of the former are gregarious and the individual sporangia are characterised by circumscissle dehiscence, while those of the latter are scattered and dehiscence is irregular.
Perichaena depressa Lib. 1837
PDD 68541, 72934, 72944
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, usually crowded but occasionally scattered, depressed-pulvinate and often polygonal by mutual contact, chestnut to dark brown or nearly black, 0.1–1.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless and often inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer sometimes hoary or covered with amorphous or crystalline lime (calcium oxalate) deposits, closely appressed to the membranous inner layer, dehiscence circumscissile by means of a definite preformed operculum. Capillitium consisting of slender, simple or branched free elaters, yellow, 2–3 µm in diameter, minutely warted or spiny. Spores bright yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, minutely warted, 9–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless or pale yellow.
Cosmopolitan. First reported (as Perichaena quadrata) from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury. Also known from Auckland, Westland, and Campbell Island.
Decaying bark and (less commonly) wood; sometimes occurring on leaf litter and dung in moist chamber cultures.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Typical fruitings of this species are easily recognised, but atypical fruitings may be mistaken for Perichaena corticalis. The sporangia of the latter species, however, are not markedly depressed or angular. Perichaena depressa is common on old decaying fronds of nikau palm.
Perichaena Fr. 1817
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium or a plasmodiocarp. Stalk (when present) short, thick, dark. Hypothallus membranous, irregular to contiguous to a group of fruiting bodies, often not evident. Peridium usually double, the outer layer granular, rarely calcareous, sometimes poorly developed, the inner membranous, closely attached. Capillitium of simple or branched tubular threads, slightly roughened to warted or spiny or minutely annulate, but not bearing spirals. Spores yellow, minutely warted or spiny.
This genus contains about 20 species worldwide. A key to many of the more common and widely distributed of these is provided by Keller & Eliasson (1992). Only five species are known to occur in New Zealand.
Perichaena luteola (Kowalski) Gilert ex Lado 2001
PDD 73557.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, crowded or heaped, globose to subglobose, sometimes laterally compressed from mutual pressure, 0.1–0.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium thin, membranous, golden yellow to orange-yellow, iridescent. Capillitium consisting of tubular threads, with swollen areas and blunt free tips, the walls bearing faint warts and ridges. Spores bright yellow to orange-yellow in mass, pale greenish yellow by transmitted light, delicately spiny, 12–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Described originally (as Calonema luteolum) from western North America and now known from scattered localities in Europe. Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but collected from dung in Mid Canterbury
Dung of herbivorous animals.
Kowalski (1969); Gilert (1995), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Dung would seem an unusual place to look for myxomycetes, but Perichaena luteola is one of several species that have been recorded only from this microhabitat (Eliasson & Lundqvist 1979). Another Perichaena commonly found on dung, although not yet known from New Zealand, is P. liceoides. The latter is often considered as a variety of P. corticalis but is probably different enough morphologically to be recognised as a distinct species (Ing 1999).
Perichaena vermicularis (Schwein.) Rostaf. 1876
PDD 48502
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, slender, pulvinate to elongated, flexuous, sometimes reticulate or annular but varying to subglobose and sporangiate on a constricted base, dull grey or dull ochraceous to dull reddish brown or black with age, usually 0.2–0.5 mm across. Hypothallus colourless, scanty to contiguous for an entire fruiting. Peridium thin, consisting of two layers not always distinguishable, the outer granular, the inner membranous, papillate. Capillitium usually abundant, the threads slender, 2–2.5 µm in diameter, irregular, minutely warted or spinulose. Spores ochraceous yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, minutely roughened, 10–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white, yellowish, or rose-red.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected by S. McBeth in Bay of Plenty. Also known from Auckland.
Dead herbaceous stems and leaves; occasionally occurring on bark
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Typical fruitings of P. vermicularis, which consist of long, branched to somewhat anastamosing plasmodiocarps, are distinctive.
Physaraceae Chevall. 1826
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium, plasmodiocarp, or aethalium. Stalk, when present, ranging from short and stout to relatively long and slender, with or without lime. Hypothallus inconspicuous to extensive, calcareous or without lime. Peridium usually with lime present. Capillitium forming a network, calcareous or very rarely almost limeless, typically composed of calcareous tubules of a nearly uniform diameter (a condition referred to as a badhamioid) or thickened calcareous nodes connected by slender, hyaline threads (a condition referred to as a physaroid), less commonly a combination of the two types. Spores in mass black, deep violaceous or dark grey
Physarales T. Macbr. 1922
The single most important characteristic of the Physarales is the presence of lime (calcium carbonate) deposits in the peridium, capillitium, or stalk of the fruiting body. The presence of lime is usually an obvious feature, but under certain environmental conditions fruiting bodies are sometimes produced that have very little lime. Such fruitings are often difficult to identify. The fruiting body produced by a member of this order is most often a sporangium, but some species produce a plasmodiocarp or (more rarely) an aethalium. A columella may or may not be present. The capillitium consists of threadlike or tubular filaments throughout. Spore colour in mass ranges from deep violaceous brown to purple-brown or black.
Three families are recognised in the Physarales, but one (the Elaeomyxaceae) is not known from New Zealand. The other families,the Physaraceae and the Didymiaceae,are well represented. Both are large and diverse, but they differ in one important respect. In the Physaraceae the capillitium is, at least in part, calcareous, but it is limeless in the Didymiaceae. Physarum, with more than 150 described species, is the largest genus of the myxomycetes (Lado 2001).
Physarum albescens Ellis ex T. Macbr. 1922
PDD74966
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or sometimes borne on a weak strand like stalk), gregarious or scattered, obovoid or globose, 0.6–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, variable in length, weak, striate, fulvous or yellow, arising as an extension of the hypothallus. Hypothallus usually more or less contiguous for a group of sporangia, venulose, pale yellow. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer calcareous, white to pale yellow or fulvous (but occasionally dark from lack of lime), darker below, the inner layer delicate, membranous, iridescent, the two layers persistent below as a shallow cup, irregularly dehiscent above. Columella absent. Capillitium dense, consisting of large, flattened nodes towards the centre of the sporotheca where they are sometimes massed to form a pseudocolumella, smaller and scanty elsewhere, the nodes dark to yellow, then fading to pallid or white, the ones towards the centre usually more deeply coloured. Spores black in mass, dark violaceous brown by transmitted light, distinctly warted, 12–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
Reported from scattered localities in montane regions of Europe and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969); also known from northern Africa (Ing 1999) and Asia (Yamomoto 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen collected in Marlborough. Also known from Otago Lakes.
Various types of plant debris or (more rarely) living plants, usually near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species is one member of the distinctive group of "snowbank" myxomycetes associated with melting snowbanks in alpine habitats throughout the Southern Alps (Stephenson & Johnston 2003).
Physarum album (Bull.) Chevall. 1826
PDD 16110, 17576, 48188.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1.0–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose or lens-shaped, usually nodding but occasionally erect, 0.3–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk noncalcareous, slender, tapering, longitudinally wrinkled, and usually dark in colour but becoming less so toward the apex. Hypothallus membranous, irregular, colourless to dark, often scanty and then inconspicous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, more or less encrusted with lime, white to dull grey, the upper portion splitting into irregular fragments. Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of colourless slender threads with interspersed small, white lime nodes. Spores black in mass, pale lilaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely spiny or nearly smooth, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium colourless, watery white or grey.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on specimens from Dunedin and Stewart Island. Also known from Auckland, Coromandel, Nelson, Buller, South Canterbury, Dunedin, Southland, and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood or (more often) bark; also occurring on the old sporocarps of wood-decaying fungi.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species and Physarum viride are very similar morphologically, but the former shows no evidence of the yellow or orange colour characteristics of the latter. Physarum album is listed as P. nutans in most modern treatments of the myxomycetes, but according to Lado (2001) the former name has priority and is the one used herein.
Physarum alpestre Mitchel, S.W. Chapm. & M.L. Farr 1986
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp (sometimes with sessile pulvinate sporangia also present), gregarious to crowded, more or less terete, 0.3–1.0 mm wide and 0.3–0.5 mm high. Hypothallus thin, translucent, colourless to light yellow. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer widely separated from the inner layer, the outer layer composed of a thick, white, smooth, brittle crust of granular lime, the inner layer thin, translucent, membranous, lightly powdered with white lime. Capillitium dense, consisting of nodes that can range from large and angular to branching to small and fusiform, shiny, yellow, ivory or pale cream to white, connected by hyaline threads. Columella a central white or yellow ridge along the length of the fruiting body or consisting only of a thickened base. Spores black in mass, dark purple-brown by transmitted light, evenly and coarsely warted, 11–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium pale yellow.
Various types of plant debris or (more rarely) living plants, usually near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Mitchel et al. (1986), Neubert et al. (1995).
Physarum alpinum and P. alpestre are very similar morphologically and have not always been recognised as separate species. However, the fruiting body produced by the former is usually a sporangium, while that produced by the latter is usually a plasmodiocarp. Physarum alpestre also has a smoother peridium, a columella, and somewhat larger spores with more prominent warts (Mitchel et al. 1986).[
Physarum alpinum (Lister & G. Lister) G. Lister 1910
PDD 74406, 74407, 74408.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or rarely plasmodiocarpous), gregarious to crowded, subglobose to hemispherical or pulvinate, sometimes slightly constricted at the base, 0.4–1.5 mm in diameter and 0.4–1.0 mm high. Hypothallus membranous, translucent, colourless, inconspicuous when limeless but frequently frosted with white lime and then evident. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer crustose, densely calcareous, dull yellow-brown, the lime tending to flake off in patches, the inner layer membranous, sometimes iridescent, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium dense, consisting of large, yellow, branched lime nodes connected by a few, very short, hyaline filaments. Spores brownish black in mass, medium purple-brown by transmitted light, closely and evenly and minutely warted, 10–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium greenish yellow.
Recorded from Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1974, Mitchel et al. 1986). First reported from New Zealand by Stephenson & Johnston (2003), based on specimens collected in Otago Lakes and Central Otago.
Various types of plant debris or (more rarely) living plants, usually near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Mitchel et al. (1986), Neubert et al. (1995).
Physarum alpinum and P. albescens occur in the same types of ecological situations, but fruiting bodies of the latter usually have a weak, strand-like stalk and the lime present on the outer layer of the peridium does not tend to flake off in patches
Physarum bitectum G. Lister 1911
PDD 16146, 39454, 74741.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium or sometimes plamodiocarpous, scattered to gregarious, slightly compressed, up to 6 mm long and 0.6–0.8 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer free, calcareous (occasionally limeless towards the base), smooth to rugose, white to beige (or shining, purplish brown when limeless) on the outside and purple to white inside, deciduous above, persistent and sometimes recurved below, inner layer membranous, rugulose, colourless, grey or purplish, persistent, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of large, variously shaped, white lime nodes and hyaline, short connecting filaments. Spores black in mass, dark violaceous brown by transmitted light, coarsely and irregularly spiny, sometimes with paler, smoother areas, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from widely scattered localities in Africa, Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). Probably cosmopolitan (Ing 1999) but seemingly most common in temperate regions of the world. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected in Auckland. Also known from Mid Canterbury.
Dead leaves, twigs and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
The fruiting bodies of this species resemble those of Physarum bivalve but are usually more or less round in cross section, whereas those of the latter species are laterally compressed. Moreover, the pattern of dehiscence (irregular in P. bitectum and by means of a longitudinal fissure in P. bivalve) is different.
Physarum bivalve Pers. 1795
PDD 68763, 68821.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium or plasmodiocarp, gregarious to crowded, laterally compressed, 0.5 mm to 1.0 cm or more long and 0.7–1.0 mm tall. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer usually thickly calcareous and white to dark grey or brownish yellow, the inner layer delicate, membranous, colourless, dehiscence by a more or less regular, preformed longitudinal fissure. Hypothallus membranous, thin, colourless to pale brown, usually inconspicuous. Columella absent. Capillitium dense, consisting of numerous, large, angular, elongated or branching white lime nodes and short connecting filaments. Spores black in mass, dull violet brown by transmitted light, minutely and uniformly warted, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium grey, pallid, or yellowish.
Widespread in the Northern Hemisphere and also known from South Africa, the Pacific islands, and Australia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Physarum sinuosum) from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from Nelson and Wellington.
Dead leaves; occasionally occurring on other types of plant debris and also more rarely on bryophytes.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Typical fruitings of Physarum bivalve almost invariably contain at least some sporangia that resemble minute clams, but the species also can occur as short or long and single to branched plasmodiocarps.
Physarum bogoriense Racib. 1898
PDD 72939, 73120, 75493.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium or short plasmodiocarp, scattered to gregarious, globose to more or less elongated or reticulate, 0.5–6.0 mm long and 0.3–0.6 mm wide. Hypothallus usually inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of three layers, the outer layer smooth, reddish brown to beige, yellow, or nearly white, closely fused with the white middle layer, inner layer membranous, rugulose, colourless or whitish to purplish or brownish, sometimes iridescent, occasionally flecked with scattered lime granules, dehiscence apical, with the outer two layers breaking up into angular or areolate fragments above and into more or less triangular, reflexed lobes at the sides. Capillitium consisting of numerous large, white, rounded or branching lime nodes and slender, hyaline connecting filaments. Spores usually free but occasionally clustered, dark brown in mass, pale to bright violet-brown by transmitted light, 7.5–10.0 µm in diameter, nearly smooth to somewhat irregularly warted. Plasmodium unknown.
Predominantly tropical (Farr 1976) but occasionally occurring in temperate regions of the world (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on specimens collected in Dunedin. Also known from Auckland.
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969).
Although not common in New Zealand, this species is occasionally found on the decaying fronds of nikau palm (Stephenson 2003). It is similar morphologically to Physarum hongkongense but differs in colour of the peridium and the type of dehiscence.
Physarum braunianum de Bary 1874
PDD 3609
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered or clustered but not heaped, subglobose to erect-ovate, 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, brown or reddish brown, speckled with pale spots that represent accumulations of yellow or white lime granules, or with scanty lime and then uniformly purplish brown, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of a network of small, angular or branching, deep ochraceous or brown nodes connected by hyaline threads. Spores dark brown in mass, violet brown by transmitted light, spiny, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
An apparently rather rare species recorded from a few localities in Europe and North America (Martin & Alexopoulos). Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen from Taranaki collected in 1924.
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995).
This species is similar morphologically to several other species of Physarum (e.g., P. lateritium) that produce relatively small, sessile sporangia and can occur in similar situations, but none of these has a peridium impregnated with accumulations of yellow or white lime granules (Hagelstein 1944).
Physarum cinereum (Batsch) Pers. 1794
PDD 16175, 16183, 22109
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or often forming a short plasmodiocarp), closely gregarious to crowded or heaped, subglobose to pulvinate, 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus membranous, colourless to white, often inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, more or less densely covered or impregnated with lime, white to cinereous (or iridescent to dark brown when limeless). Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of numerous, variously shaped, mostly angular or branching white lime nodes (these occasionally massed in the centre) connected by hyaline filaments. Spores purplish brown in mass, light violaceous by transmitted light, asperulate to minutely warted, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white or colourless, reported to become at times bright yellow before fruiting.
Reported as cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but probably most common in temperate regions of the world. First reported (as Didymium cinereum) from New Zealand by Berkeley (1855), based on a specimen collected by W. Colenso in Northland. Also known from Auckland, Coromandel, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Taupo, Wanganui, Wellingon, Hawkes Bay, Wairarapa, Nelson, Marlborough, North Canterbury, Mid Canterbury, South Canterbury (Lister & Lister 1905), Dunedin (Rawson 1937), Southland (Rawson 1937), and Campbell Island.
Dead leaves; also fruiting on living plants.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Several other species of Physarum produce sessile sporangia and are found in similar situations, but none of these is known to produces the extensive fruitings sometimes characteristic of P. cinereum. One example of an exceptionally large fruiting in a grassy area in Auckland had a diameter of approximately 8 meters (Peter Buchanan, personal communication).
Physarum citrinum Schumach. 1803
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to closely gregarious, 0.8–2.0 mm tall. Sporotheca globose to subglobose or reniform, somewhat flattened to invaginated below, 0.5–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk stout, calcareous, sulcate, tapering upward, sometimes expanded at the base, yellow to yellow orange or dull orange, opaque, very short to slightly more than one half the total height of the fruiting body. Hypothallus membranous, discoid to contiguous for a group of sporangia, often shiny, colourless to yellow or brown. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, membranous, nearly completely covered with yellow calcareous squamules and patches, bright yellow or ochraceous to pale yellow or yellowish grey, sometimes limeless and iridescent at the base. Columella small, more or less conic or convex, yellow, sometimes absent or replaced by a pseudocolumella. Capillitium dense, delicate, consisting of relatively small, mostly rounded or polygonal (but with a few elongated or branching), yellow lime nodes connected by rigid, hyaline filaments with flat expansions at many of the junctions. Spores dark brown in mass, light violaceous brown by transmitted light, nearly smooth to unevenly warted, sometimes with scattered, more prominent, single or grouped warts, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
Considered to be cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but probably more characteristic of temperate regions of the world, albeit never common. Farr (1976) reported the species from South America, Hagelstein (1944) from North America, and Ing (1999) from Europe. First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taranaki.
Decaying wood, usually with bryophytes also present.
This rather distinctive species is very similar in appearance to Physarum globuliferum but can be distinguished on the basis of its usually larger overall size and the brighter yellow colour of both the peridium and stalk. Ing (1999) reported that P. citrinum is now much less common in the British Isles than was the case during the early part of the 20th century. The reasons for this apparent decline are unknown.
Physarum compressum Alb. & Schwein. 1805
28616, 68539, 75481.
Fruiting body a stalked (or less commonly sessile) sporangium, scattered or gregarious, up to 1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca fan shaped, compressed globose, compressed reniform, varying to lobate or plasmodiocarpous, 0.8–1.5 mm in greatest diameter. Stalk, when present, short, stout, sulcate, dark brown or frosted with lime. Hypothallus discoid to irregular, membranous, colourless to dark grey or brown. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, calcareous, white or cinereous, squamulose, opening by an apical cleft or irregularly. Capillitium rather loose, consisting of white lime nodes, these variable in size and shape. Spores black in mass, purplish brown by transmitted light, warted, the warts sometimes irregularly distributed, 10.0–12.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium greyish white.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but probably most abundant in the tropics, where it is particularly common in aerial microhabitats. First reported (as Didymium radiatum) from New Zealand by Massee (1892) but without naming a specific locality. Known from Auckland, Coromandel, Nelson, South Canterbury (Lister & Lister 1905), and the Chatham Islands.
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Typical fruitings of this species are easily recognised by the laterally compressed, more or less fan-shaped to reniform sporotheca. However, sessile forms are encountered occasionally, and these are more difficult to identify
Physarum decipiens M.A. Curtis 1848
CHSC 50092.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or rarely with a short, weak stalk) or sometimes plasmodiocarpous, gregarious, depressed globose to pulvinate, 0.3–0.7 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, dull to bright yellow or orange, sometimes rugulose, usually impregnated with yellow lime granules and often marked with red or orange dots or streaks. Capillitium consisting of white, yellow or dull orange lime nodes, these angular or branching, sometimes with only a few connecting threads and then badhamioid. Spores dull black in mass, rather pale violet brown by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
Recorded from widely scattered localities throughout the world and possibly cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999) but often confused with other species, a situation that does not allow its distribution to be determined completely. Reported from New Zealand by Stagg (1982), based on a specimen from Otago Lakes.
Decaying wood, often fruiting on associated bryophytes
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999)
Physarum decipiens is very similar morphologically to Physarum serpula (Farr 1961) but its fruiting body is more likely to be a sporangium and the capillitium tends to be rather badhamioid. The latter condition is so pronounced that some authors have placed P. decipiens in the genus Badhamia (as B. decipiens).
Physarum dictyospermum Lister & G. Lister 1905
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, scattered, 1.5–2.0 mm tall. Sporotheca globose to lenticular, erect, 0.5–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, black, enclosing dark amorphous material, sometimes yellow above when dusted with lime granules, 0.1–0.7 mm long. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, rather firm, dull orange, dark chestnut or olive brown, glossy, beset with minute yellow crystalline bodies. Columella black, conical or clavate, varying from short to two thirds the height of the sporotheca. Capillitium dense, consisting of small, fusiform nodes connected by colourless tubules, the nodes orange red. Spores dark brown to almost black in mass, pale purplish grey by transmitted light, reticulate, with 5–6 meshes to the hemisphere, or the reticulation irregular and sometimes incomplete, 10–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
This species was described originally from a specimen collected on Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905) and has since been reported from Australia, Europe, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969).
Decaying wood.
Lister (1925).
This species has been collected only a few times and is apparently rather rare. Because the prominently reticulate spores are so distinctive, Physarum dictyospermum is unlikely to be confused with any other species. The very limited distribution data suggest that it is confined largely to temperate regions of the Southern Hemisphere.
Physarum didermoides (Pers.) Rostaf. 1874
PDD 69453.
Fruiting body a sessile or stalked sporangium, densely crowded or aggregated, sometimes to the point of forming a pseudoaethalium. Sporotheca cylindrical or ovoid, 0.5–1.3 mm tall and 0.4–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, weak, membranous, often flattened, white, representing an extension of the hypothallus. Hypothallus prominent, contiguous for a group of sporangia, membranous, strongly calcareous, white. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer crustose, calcareous, white, fragile, readily falling away but with the apical portion sometimes remaining as a cap, the inner layer membranous, grey (sometimes with purple tints), dehiscence more or less irregular. Columella absent, but a pseudocolumella sometimes present. Capillitium dense, consisting of angular or rounded, white lime nodes connected by short, hyaline threads. Spores black in mass, very dark purplish brown by transmitted light, often angular or irregular in shape, minutely and very densely spiny, sometimes paler and smoother on one side, 12–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or watery grey.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but apparently rare at high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but represented by a specimen from Auckland.
Decaying wood, bark, and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Physarum didermoides produces extensive fruitings that are not easily overlooked. The presence of only a single collection in PDD at least suggests that the species is uncommon in New Zealand. Interestingly, P. didermoides is one of the more common members of an ecological group of myxomycetes associated with decaying inflorescences of large tropical herbs (Schnittler & Stephenson 2002).
Physarum flavicomum Berk. 1845
PDD 75120, 75448.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1–2 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, subhemispherical or lens-shaped, nodding, sometimes slightly umbilicate below, 0.3–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical, usually relatively long, slender, reddish brown, translucent, often darker at base, limeless, fluted, twisted, tapering upward. Hypothallus membranous, discoid, colourless and iridescent to brown, usually inconspicous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, delicate, dusky yellow or sooty, often nearly limeless and then iridescent, dehiscence irregular, the lime falling away quickly in patches except for the persistent base. Columella absent. Capillitium dense, consisting of yellow lime nodes connected by colourless threads, the nodes varying from small and angular to elongated, often fusiform and sometimes branching, many of the junctions limeless. Spores sooty brown in mass, bright violaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely punctate, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow, yellowish green or green.
Known from scattered localities throughout the world and probably cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999). First reported (as P. berkeleyi) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen from Stewart Island. Also known from Auckland and Southland (Rawson 1937).
Decaying wood, often associated with old fungal sporocarps.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species is usually easy to recognise on the basis of the iridescent sporotheca, the relatively long, reddish brown stalk, and the dense, yellow capillitium. Physarum viride is rather similar in appearance but has a limy peridium and is much more common.
Physarum globuliferum (Bull.) Pers. 1801
PDD 17577, 48193, 75473.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious or sometimes united in small clusters, 0.6–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect, white, 0.4–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk moderately slender, smooth or wrinkled, calcareous, usually white but sometimes ochraceous or dull red. Columella short, conical or blunt (rarely lacking). Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, densely encrusted with lime, pinkish white, grey, pale to dingy yellow, or ochraceous. Capillitium consisting of small, rounded white or yellowish lime nodes connected by hyaline threads. Spores dark brown in mass, light violaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow or white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected on Stewart Island. Also known from South Canterbury (Rawson 1937) and Southland.
Decaying wood and bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999).
This species can usually be identified by the combination of the calcareous stalk, the conical columella, and the dense capillitium that retains its shape even after the spores have been dispersed.
Physarum gyrosum Rostaf. 1874
PDD 15937, 24843.
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, usually forming gregarious clumps or rosette like masses and sometimes aggregated into a pseudoaethalium or (less commonly) sporangium like and attached to the substrate by a weak, yellow or red, stalk like strand of the hypothallus, the individual plasmodiocarps higher than broad, 0.2–4.0 mm wide and up to 1 mm or more high, the clumps usually 2–3 mm in diameter, frequently much larger. Hypothallus membranous, more or less venulose, colourless to yellowish or reddish brown, sometimes scanty. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, white or grey to brownish or reddish drab with scattered, white or reddish lime deposits. Capillitium dense, elastic, consisting of numerous large, spike like, transverse, white nodes and smaller fusiform nodes connected by delicate, hyaline threads. Spores dark brown in mass, pale violaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 7–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white, changing to yellow upon exposure to light.
Widespread in the tropics and also reported from several localities in North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999). Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens from Northland and Gisborne.
Soil, surface debris, and often encrusting leaves of living plants.
The fruiting bodies of Physarum gyrosum are quite unlike those of most other members of the genus Physarum, and some authors (e.g., Ing 1999) have considered the species more appropriately placed in the genus Fuligo (as F. gyrosa).
Physarum hongkongense Chao H. Chung 1997
PDD 72938, 73113, 75869.
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp (or sometimes sporangiate), gregarious or in small groups, strongly laterally compressed, constricted at the base, 0.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of two layers, the outer layer calcareous, crustose, bright to dull yellow, the inner layer distinctly separated from the outer layer, membranous, greyish white, dehiscence of the outer layer by a preformed fissure along the top of the fruiting body. Capillitium consisting of rounded to angular white lime nodes connected by hyaline threads. Spores blackish brown in mass, pale brown in transmitted light, globose, evenly, minutely warted, 7.5–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Described originally from Hong Kong and now known from elsewhere in Asia (Chung & Tzean 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Stephenson (2003), based on a number of specimens from Auckland.
Leaf litter and decaying fronds of nikau palm
Chung & Tzean (1998).
This species may be more common than indicated by available records, since it could be confused with Physarum bogoriense. The two species are found in similar ecological situations, but the fruiting bodies of P. hongkonense are laterally compressed (those of P. bogoriense are more or less terete), and the colour of the outer peridium and the pattern of dehiscence are different for the two species.
Physarum lateritium (Berk. & Ravenel) Morgan 1896
PDD 75499, 75870, 75874.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (occasionally forming short plasmodiocarps), gregarious or clustered, globose to subglobose or ovoid, 0.3–0.8 mm in diameter. Hypothallus membranous, colourless to reddish brown, usually very scanty. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, somewhat rugulose, yellowish red, orange or scarlet, sometimes fading, dotted with minute scarlet lime scales. Capillitium delicate, usually dense, consisting of rounded, pallid to yellow lime nodes, these often with deep yellow or red centres, connected by hyaline or yellow threads, the lime often of large, subcrystalline granules, many of the nodes limeless, consisting merely of membranous expansions. Spores violet brown in mass, clear bright violet by transmitted light, minutely warted, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium orange yellow.
An apparently rare species recorded from widely scattered localities in North America, Europe, South America, and Asia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976, Yamamoto 1998). First reported from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1911), based on a specimen from Auckland. Also known from Southland (Rawson 1937).
Decaying wood, leaf litter, and other types of plant debris; in New Zealand most common on decaying fronds of nikau palm.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Ing (1999).
Physarum braunianum is the only other species known from New Zealand that might be confused with P. lateritium. However, the former is smaller, much less common, and lacks lime nodes with the distinctive yellow or red centres characteristic of the latter. Physarum lateritium is not uncommon on the decaying fronds of nikau palm (Stephenson 2003).
Physarum leucophaeum Fr. 1818
PDD 3647
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium (rarely sessile and then somewhat plasmodiocarpous), gregarious or scattered, 0.8–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose to depressed, 0.4–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk usually short, fuscous to reddish brown, often powdered with white, often spirally twisted, arising from a dark, more or less netted hypothallus. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, membranous, iridescent, bluish ashen to white, darker below, flicked with lime or sometimes rather strongly calcareous, convex or plane below, rarely umbilicate, usually with a dark basal disk or shallow cup, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium delicate, dense, consisting of numerous, white lime nodes connected by hyaline threads, the nodes mostly rounded but varying to large, angular or branching and then fewer. Spores black in mass, yellow brown by transmitted light, minutely roughened, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Widely distributed in North America and Europe and also known from Africa, Asia, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Cooke (1892), but without giving a specific locality. Known from Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Wellington, Buller, Fiordland, North Canterbury, Mid Canterbury, South Canterbury (Rawson 1937), Dunedin (Rawson 1937), and Southland.
Decaying wood and leaf litter.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This species is rather similar in appearance to Physarum nutans but is less common. Moreover, the latter has a longer, more slender stalk, the sporotheca is usually nodding, and the capillitium radiates largely from the base of the sporotheca.
Physarum leucopus Link 1809
PDD 74389.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, up to 1 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, 0.4–0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk white, calcareous, grooved, brittle, tapering upward, about equal to the sporotheca or sometimes much shorter. Hypothallus discoid, membranous, white or colourless, often inconspicuous. Peridium calcareous, white, the lime in small frosty particles, suggesting a Didymium. Columella short, conical, sometimes absent. Capillitium rather lax, consisting of large, angular, white lime nodes connected by long, hyaline threads, the nodes sometimes massed in the centre and then forming a pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, pale violet brown by transmitted light, distinctly warted, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white, often lightly tinted with blue, green, or yellow.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). First reported from New Zealand by Colenso (1891), based on a specimen from Hawkes Bay. Also known from Gisborne.
Leaf litter and less commonly decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Several authors (e.g., Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Ing 1999) have noted the general resemblance of this species to Didymium squamulosum, but on closer examination the very different nature of the capillitium in the two becomes apparent. Physarum leucopus is somewhat similar in appearance to P. globuliferum but has a much shorter, thicker stalk and often lacks the columella present in the latter.
Physarum licheniforme (Schwein.) Lado 2001
None in PDD
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, crowded and often in large groups, globose to subglobose, 0.3–0.6 in diameter. Hypothallus colourless, sometimes encrusted with white lime. Peridium consisting of a single layer, colourless or sometimes encrusted with lime and then pale grey or blue-grey, rough, dehiscence irregular, with the basal part persisting as a cup with an irregular rim. Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of numerous rounded, white lime nodes connected by hyaline threads, the nodes usually united in the centre to form a pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, dark purple brown in transmitted light, with a distinctive pale area, covered with distinct, dark, rather dispersed warts, 11–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium translucent white.
An apparently rare species that has been reported from widely scattered localities in Europe. First reported (as Physarum lividum) from New Zealand by Colenso (1891) based on a specimen from Hawkes Bay. Also known from Dunedin (Rawson 1937).
Dead leaves and other types of plant debris; often reported as fruiting on straw.
Nannenga Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Several authors, including Lister (1925), Hagelstein (1944), and Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), considered Physarum licheniforme to represent nothing more than a variety of P. didermoides, but the former differs from the latter in having a peridium that consists of only a single layer, a sporangium that is always sessile, and spores with a distinctive pale area on one side.
Physarum limonium Nann.-Bremek. 1966
PDD 15935
Fruiting body a stalked (or sometimes sessile) sporangium, almost spherical or somewhat oblate, 0.8–1.0 mm in diameter and up to 1.2 mm tall. Stalk slender, up to one and a half times longer than the diameter of the sporangium, grooved, reddish brown. Hypothallus discoid, small, red brown. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, lemon yellow to orange yellow but fading when exposed to light, covered with circular scales of yellow lime, darker at the base and there usually limeless, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium with large, sometimes more or less badhamioid, yellow or orange yellow lime nodes, sometimes merged in the center to form a pseudocolumella, the limeless portions short, delicate, colourless and difficult to see. Spores dark brown in mass, greenish or lilac grey in transmitted light, 10–13 µm in diameter, covered with fine warts and sometimes with groups of larger ones. Plasmodium yellow.
Described originally from Europe (Nannenga-Bremekamp 1966), where it is now known from a number of scattered localities. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen from Auckland.
Bark of living trees, dead leaves, and other types of plant debris
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Lado (1999).
The combination of a stalked sporangium and the circular lime scales on the peridium makes this rare species easy to recognise. Some authors consider Physarum limonium doubtfully distinct from P. auriscalpium, a species not known from New Zealand. However, the sporangia of the latter are usually sessile and the spores much darker.
Physarum melleum (Berk. & Broome) Massee 1892
PDD 16246, 74385, 75494.
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, gregarious, and up to 1 mm tall. Sporotheca globose or somewhat flattened below, 0.4–0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical or tapering upward, stout, opaque, typically white but sometimes ochraceous or tawny, furrowed, calcareous, short, about equal to the diameter of the sporotheca. Hypothallus discoid, membranous, white or colourless. Peridium consisting of a single layer, rugose, encrusted with lime, usually yellow to dull orange but varying from yellowish grey to honey yellow to bright orange-honey yellow to bright orange-red or reddish brown, persistent below. Columella small, conic, white or pale yellow or rarely orange. Capillitium abundant, consisting of large, angular, white, or less commonly yellow or orange lime nodes connected by delicate hyaline filments. Spores dark in mass, pale violet-brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 7.5–10.0 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow or olive-green.
Decaying leaves and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995).
Although the colour of Physarum melleum can vary from off white to bright orange or yellow, the combination of a globose sporotheca on a thick calcareous stalk is usually enough to identify this species.
Physarum notabile T. Macbr. 1922
BPI 807539.
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium (or occasionally plasmodiocarpous), closely gregarious and sometimes compacted in small groups within the larger fruiting, 1.0–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca globose to turbinate or reniform, 0.3–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, irregular, usually tapering upward, deeply plicate-furrowed, opaque, dark or covered with white calcareous granules. Hypothallus membranous, more or less contiguous for a group of fruiting bodies, colourless to brown. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, usually densely incrusted with ashy white calcareous deposits, especially above, and then white or greyish white, but sometimes nearly limeless and then more or less iridescent. Columella absent. Capillitium abundant, consisting of a network of rather long hyaline threads connecting white lime nodes that vary considerably in size and shape, occasionally somewhat massed towards the centre of the sporotheca. Spores very dark brown to black in mass, olivaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, mostly 10.0–11.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or grey.
Known from Asia (Yamamoto 1998), Europe (Ing 1999), North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), and South America (Farr 1976). Reported (as Physarum connatum) from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on specimens collected in South Canterbury and Southland.
Decaying wood and bark.
As pointed out by several authors (e.g., Hagelstein 1944, Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), this is a very variable species. Typical fruitings of mostly stalked sporangia usually can be recognised on the basis of the small groups of compacted sporangia, but when these are not evident or the stalk itself is poorly developed, Physarum notable is often very difficult to identify. In the latter instance, the sporangia can resemble those of several other species, including P. leucophaeum or P. compressum (Farr 1976).
Physarum nucleatum Rex 1891
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium (or rarely plasmodiocarpous), gregarious to crowded, up to 1.8 mm tall. Sporotheca globose, erect or nodding, 0.3–0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, subulate, yellowish white, rugose, not calcareous, 0.5–1.5 mm long. Hypothallus membranous, discoid to irregular, colourless to light brown. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, studded with rounded, white calcareous nodules, the lime sometimes scanty and then appearing metallic, the lower portion thicker and remaining as a collar on the stalk after the upper portion has disappeared. Columella usually lacking, small and inconspicuous when present. Capillitium dense, consisting of small, white, rounded lime nodes and slender, hyaline filaments, the lime nodes usually aggregated in the centre to form a conspicuous white, globose or somewhat irregular ball of lime, the latter free from the stalk and thus not representing a true pseudocolumella, albeit resembling such a structure. Spores black in mass, clear lilaceous by transmitted light, minutely warted, 6.0–7.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium grey.
Reported from widely scattered localities in the Northern Hemisphere and also South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but apparently most common in warm temperate to tropical regions of the world. Reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin.
Decaying wood and bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Ing (1999).
This species is rather similar in appearance to Physarum globuliferum but lacks a columella and the stalk is not calcareous. The central lime ball is a useful diagnostic feature but is sometimes not present.
Physarum obscurum (Lister) Ing 1982
PDD16126, 16156, 49870.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium (or sometimes plasmodiocarpous), gregarious, irregularly subglobose to ovoid or slightly elongated, 0.4–0.8 mm in diameter. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, often without conspicuous deposits of lime but usually with scattered granules present, greenish-grey, olive or yellowish, glossy, dehiscence irregular. Columella absent. Capillitium consisting of bright yellow angular lime nodes connected by slender hyaline threads. Spores black in mass, pale violet-brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow.
Recorded from Europe and North America (Ing 1999) but apparently uncommon. Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens from Buller and Westland.
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris.
Ing (1999).
Some authors have considered Physarum obscurum as a variety of P. virescens, but the fruiting bodies of the former are larger and not heaped (the single most diagnostic feature of P. virescens), and the spores are smaller.
Physarum Pers. 1794
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium or plasmodiocarp, rarely almost aethalioid. Stalk, when present, ranging from short and stout to slender and relatively long, grooved or smooth, calcareous or limeless and translucent. Hypothallus ranging from inconspicuous to contiguous for a group of fruiting bodies, membranous and with no apparent lime to conspicuously calcareous. Peridium consisting of one or two (rarely three) layers, the outermost layer calcareous. Columella present or absent. Capillitium usually consisting of calcareous nodes connected by hyaline threads, these attached to the base and to the peridium, the nodes sometimes forming a pseudocolumella. Spores in mass black or dark brown.
Physarum is the largest genus in the myxomycetes, with more than 150 species having been described (Lado 2001). Some of these are highly variable, even to the point of producing sporangia that are stalked in some fruitings and sessile to even plasmodiocarpous in others. Moreover, the colour of the lime present in the fruiting body is not always constant for a particular species and may vary in response to such factors as the substrate upon which fruiting occurs. As such, it is sometimes difficult to identify a specimen of Physarum to species although the genus itself is usually easy to recognise
Physarum pezizoideum (Jungh.) Pavill. & Lagarde 1903
PDD 54596, 54598.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 2–4 mm tall. Sporotheca flat discoid or saucer-shaped, erect or nodding, 0.2–0.4 mm thick and 0.8–1.3 mm broad. Stalk slender, striate, reddish brown, translucent, 1.5–2.5 mm long. Hypothallus discoid, membranous, often inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer, thin, membranous, thinly covered with lime granules, white or sometimes greyish white, dehiscence irregular, the fragments persistent. Columella absent. Capillitium usually dense, connecting the lower and upper surfaces of the peridium and consisting of branching hyaline tubules connected to small, mostly fusiform lime nodes. Spores dark brown in mass, pale violet brown in transmitted light, minutely spinulose with clusters of more prominent spines, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium greyish white.
Described originally from Asia and now known from Africa (Ukkola 1998) and South America (Farr 1976), this species is apparently most common in the tropics. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on two specimens from the Kermadec Islands. Also known from Auckland on mainland New Zealand.
Decaying wood, leaf litter, and (in New Zealand) the decaying fronds of nikau palm.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995).
Physarum pezizoideum is easily recognized by the combination of the flat, saucer-shaped ( or "pizza-shaped") sporotheca and the long, reddish-brown stalks. Because this species seems to be restricted to the tropics, its potential ecological distribution in New Zealand is likely to include only the more northern portions of the North Island
Physarum pusillum (Berk. & M.A. Curtis) G. Lister 1911
PDD 16432, 23906, 72943
Physarum pezizoideum is easily recognized by the combination of the flat, saucer-shaped ( or "pizza-shaped") sporotheca and the long, reddish-brown stalks. Because this species seems to be restricted to the tropics, its potential ecological distribution in New Zealand is likely to include only the more northern portions of the North Island
Reported as cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but particularly common in warm temperate to tropical regions of the world. First reported (as Physarum calidris) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected on Stewart Island. Also known from Auckland, Coromandel, Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Wellington, Nelson, and Southland (Rawson 1937).
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
The reddish brown colour of the stalk and the lower portion of the sporotheca, and the a relatively long stalk, are the distinguishing features of this species. The colour of the peridium is quite variable, and specimens with a yellow peridium are sometimes encountered. Physarum pusillum is one of the myxomycetes commonly found on old decaying fronds of nikau palm (Stephenson 2003).
Physarum robustum (Lister) Nann.-Bremek. 1973
None in PDD
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium (less commonly plasmodiocarpous), clustered, up to 1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca hemispherical to subglobose, with a more or less flatten base, 0.7–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk relatively short, usually not longer than the diameter of the sporotheca, grooved, sometimes twisted, tapering upward, ochraceous, darker below. Hypothallus discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia, brown. Peridium consisting of a single layer, colourless except for a pale brown zone around the stalk, impregnated with lime or lime scales except around the stalk, dehiscence irregular, usually with the basal portion remaining as a cup with a roughly petaloid rim. Columella absent or represented by a small flat brown basal thickening. Capillitium radiating from the apex of the stalk, the lime nodes white, small and spindle-shaped or oblong, rarely rounded and nearly as long as wide, forming a pseudocolumella at the centre of the sporotheca. Spores dark brown in mass, lilac in transmitted light, sometimes slightly irregular in shape, covered with fine warts and sometimes also with groups of warts, 9–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium ivory, white or grey
Widespread in Europe (Ing 1999) and also known from Asia (Yamamoto 1998). Reported (as Physarum nutans var. robustum) from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from South Canterbury.
Decaying wood and bark.
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999
This species is most similar morphologically to Physarum leucophaeum but can be distinguished on the basis of the distinctive radiating capillitium and the presence of a pseudocolumella (Nannenga-Bremekamp 1991).
Physarum serpula Morgan 1896
PDD 30881
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp (or sometimes sporangiate), scattered to crowded, forming lines, rings, or a simple reticulum, the individual fruiting bodies terete, 0.2–0.4 mm in diameter. Hypothallus membranous, colourless, usually scanty and often inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer (but sometimes appearing to consist of two layers when strongly calcareous), membranous, fragile, covered with a dense, uniform crust consisting of closely compacted lime granules, bright or dull yellow to ochraceous, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium dense, consisting of large, angular, branching, pale yellow to white lime nodes connected by short, hyaline threads, the latter sometimes rather broad, the capillitium then appearing somewhat badhamioid. Spores globose, dull black in mass, dark brown by transmitted light, minutely warted, with a paler and smoother area on one side, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium at maturity greenish yellow.
Known to occur in North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and South America (Farr 1976). Reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen collected in Auckland.
Decaying wood and bark, dead leaves, and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969).
This species is rather similar morphologically to Physarum decipiens, and there is little doubt that the two species have been confused with each other (Farr 1961). However, P. serpula usually can be distinguished on the basis of having a more strongly calcareous peridium. Neither species appears to be particularly common.
Physarum straminipes Lister 1898
PDD 3615, BPI 810298.
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium, clustered or scattered, the stalked forms 2 mm or more tall. Sporotheca subglobose, obovoid or wedge-shaped, occasionally somewhat elongated, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, slender, white to pale ochraceous or translucent, often branched, merging into the hypothallus. Hypothallus membranous, yellow or white, more or less reticulate and giving rise to the stalk. Peridium consisting of two layers (appearing single when the outer layer is poorly developed), outer layer usually strongly calcareous, greyish white above and white or ochraceous below, with scattered deposits of lime, the inner layer membranous, hyaline, delicate, dehiscence occurring mostly towards the apex, the outer layer of the peridium persisting below as a poorly defined cup. Capillitium dense, consisting of numerous white, rounded or lobed lime nodes connected by rigid, hyaline filaments, the nodes sometimes massed in the centre of the sporotheca and then forming a loose pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, dark purplish brown by transmitted light, prominently warted, with larger warts grouped in clusters separated by pale bands, 10–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Apparently confined to temperate and cool temperate regions of the world (Ing 1999). First reported from New Zealand by Macbride (1926), based on a specimen cited without naming a specific locality. Also known from Waikato.
Leaf litter, straw, and other types of plant debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
Most fruitings of this species tend to be small, and they often occur in situations where they are easily overlooked, e.g., straw heaps and accumulations of leaf litter. When the stalk is absent or not readily apparent, Physarum straminipes might be confused with P. cinereum or with the sessile sporangia of such species as P. compressum. However, the pale bands on the spores are distinctive (Nannenga-Bremekamp 1991).
Physarum vernum Sommerf. 1829
CHSC 50090, BPI 819639.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium or plasmodiocarp, often crowded, globose, 0.5–0.8 mm in diameter; the plasmodiocarps usually short, simple or branched, but sometimes several millimeters long. Hypothallus membranous, varying from inconspicuous to contiguous for a group of sporangia, white. Peridium consisting of a single layer, membranous, rugulose, usually densely covered with coarse, closely set, calcareous granules, rarely nearly limeless, greyish white, dehiscence more or less irregular. Capillitium consisting of large, angular, branching, limy nodes connected by short, hyaline threads, the nodes sometimes massed in the center to form a pseudocolumella. Spores black in mass, dark purplish brown by transmitted light, warted, 10–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Widespread but not common in the Northern Hemisphere and also reported from Australia (Cheesman & Lister 1915) and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen from Dunedin. Also known from Westland and Otago Lakes (Stagg 1982).
Leaf litter and other types of plant debris, often near the edges of melting snowbanks in alpine regions but not restricted to such ecological situations.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
Physarum vernum is highly variable and probably represents a species complex rather than a single taxonomic entity (Farr 1976). It is similar morphologically to P. cinereum but tends to be larger, usually forms longer plasmodiocarps, and has larger and darker spores (Ing 1999).
Physarum viride (Bull.) Pers. 1795
PDD 15993, 68488, 72932
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious, 1.0–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca subglobose or lens-shaped, usually nodding, pale to deep yellow, greenish or greyish to golden or reddish orange, 0.3–0.7 mm in diameter. Stalk noncalcareous, slender, tapering, longitudinally wrinkled, and usually dark in colour, becoming less so toward the apex. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium consisting of a single layer encrusted with lime, dehiscence irregular above and more or less floriform below. Capillitium consisting of a network of colourless slender threads with interspersed small, white lime nodes. Spores black in mass, pale liliaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely spiny or nearly smooth, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow or greenish yellow.
Considered as cosmopolitan by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected on Stewart Island. Also known from Northland, Auckland, Coromandel, Bay of Plenty (Cheesman & Lister 1915), Taupo, Gisborne, Buller, Westland, South Canterbury (Rawson 1937), Dunedin, Southland, Auckland Islands, and Campbell Island.
Decaying wood and bark, old sporocarps of fungi, and less commonly leaves and herbaceous debris.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1995), Ing (1999).
This is the most common species of Physarum in the forests of New Zealand. The bright yellow sporangia usually stand out in marked contrast to the substrate upon which they occur, making this an easy species to detect.
Prototrichia metallica (Berk.) Massee 1889
PDD 17572, 17600
Fruiting body a sessile (or rarely short-stalked) sporangium, scattered to gregarious, globose to subglobose, orange-brown to dull brown or sometimes rosaceous, 0.5–2.2 mm in diameter. Hypothallus usually inconspicuous. Peridium thin, transparent, often somewhat iridescent. Capillitium consisting of numerous yellow-brown, more or less spirally banded threads that originate at the base of the sporangium and ultimately become somewhat subdivided above. Spores orange-brown to dull brown in mass, yellow by transmitted light, spiny, 10–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Widely distributed in Europe and in the mountains of western North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). In the Southern Hemisphere also known from Australia. First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on specimens collected in South Canterbury and Southland.
Decaying wood and bark, especially that of conifers.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Prototrichia metallica is one of the more distinctive myxomycetes characteristically found in alpine regions of the temperate zone in the Northern Hemisphere.
Prototrichia Rostaf. 1876
Fruiting body a sessile or rarely short-stalked sporangium (occasionally somewhat subplasmodiocarpous). Peridium thin, transparent. Capillitium of solid threads, smooth, faintly sculptured or with distinct spiral bands, often twisted about each other. Spores first pink and then brown in mass, pink and then yellow by transmitted light.
Prototrichia is a monotypic genus and contains only a single species (Lado 2001), which has been reported for New Zealand.
Reticularia Bull. 1787-88
Fruiting body an aethalium with a thin, thick or sturdy cortex that breaks open irregularly. Hypothallus inconspicuous or consisting of interwoven white strands and forming a border around the fruiting body. Pseudocapillitium either emerging from the base in the form of strongly branched threads sometimes fraying from the plate-like lower portion or filling the entire aethalium with perforated membranes. Spores free or clustered, brown, yellow or olive in mass.
Nine species have been described in this genus (Lado 2001), and two of these have been reported from New Zealand.
Reticularia liceoides (Lister) Nann.-Bremek. 1973
None in PDD
Fruiting body an aethalium, vermiform to somewhat ring-shaped or branched (and then appearing plasmodiocarpous), dark brown, dull or shining, 1–10 mm long and about 0.5 mm wide and thick. Hypothallus inconspicuous and not protruding beyond the aethalium. Peridium brown, thin, consisting of two appressed layers, the outer layer at first gelatinous but then drying to become firm, with inclusions, closely adherent to the membranous inner layer. Pseudocapillitium sparse, scanty, consisting of flat pillars, which may be widened at the base and/or the top, and which connect the base to the top of the aethalium. Spores dark brown in mass, clustered, minutely warted on the outside of a cluster, nearly smooth on the inner faces, freed spores subconical or turbinate, 10–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium pink
Widely distributed in Europe and apparently uncommon (or at least rarely reported) elsewhere (Ing 1999). First reported from New Zealand by Macbride (1926), based on a specimen cited without specifying a locality. Rawson (1937) reported this species from Dunedin.
Decaying wood, especially that of conifers.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species is known from scattered localities in Europe (Ing 1999) but appears to be exceedingly rare or at least overlooked elsewhere
Reticularia lycoperdon Bull. 1790
15880, 15881.
Fruiting body an aethalium, solitary to gregarious (although usually somewhat separated), pulvinate to hemispherical, at first silvery white but becoming brown, 2–8 cm broad and up to 2 cm thick. Hypothallus white, usually forming a conspicuous margin about the base, becoming inconspicuous when powdered by the spores. Cortex more or less tough cartilaginous, brown, lustrous, smooth to rugose. Pseudocapillitium arising as erect plates from the base, branching in a dendroid fashion with many expansions and ending in a mass of flattened, flexuous threads almost free from the cortex. Spores rust-brown in mass, pale brownish yellow or reddish brown by transmitted light, distinctly reticulate over about two-thirds of the surface, 8–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium creamy white.
Reported to be cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but probably most common in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from Auckland and Wanganui.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The fruiting bodies of R. lycoperdon are among the largest produced by any myxomycete and sometimes are as much as 10 cm across. Fruiting bodies that have been mature for more than a day or two often have been invaded by small beetles that feed upon the spore mass.
Stemonitidaceae Fr. 1829
Fruiting body usually a stalked sporangium, but a sessile sporangium, aethalium, pseudoaethalium, or plasmodiocarp is produced by some species. Stalk, when present, short to relatively long, fibrous or hollow, dark. Hypothallus membranous, discoid or contiguous for a group of fruiting bodies, colourless to dark, often not evident. Peridium fugacious or persistent. Capillitium always present, typically consisting of a network of smooth dark threads, usually free from the peridium but occasionally attached to it, arising from the columella or the base of the fruiting body. Columella usually present and often prominent. Spores usually dark coloured (purple-brown to black) in mass, but occasionally the spores are ferruginous or pinkish brown.
Fifteen genera are recognised in the Stemonitaceae. Five of these (Amaurochaete, Brefeldia, Elaeomyxa, Leptoderma, and Stemonaria) are not known from New Zealand.
Stemonitis axifera (Bull.) T. Macbr. 1899
PDD 3602, 5042, 48195
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, fasciculate in small- or medium-sized clusters, 7–15 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, acuminate, erect, bright rusty brown, becoming pale brown as the spores are dispersed, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical, smooth, black, shining, 3–7 mm long. Hypothallus membranous, shining, colourless to brown. Peridium fugacious. Columella branching freely and evenly, dissipated below the apex of the sporotheca, the ultimate branchlets united into a delicate, small-meshed surface net. Spores bright reddish brown in mass, very pale reddish brown to almost colourless by transmitted light, nearly smooth or very minutely punctate, 5–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or pale to bright yellow.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Stemonitis ferruginea) from New Zealand by Berkeley (1855), based on a specimen collected by W. Colenso in Northland. Also known from Auckland, Taranaki, Taupo, Wanganui, Wellington (Cooke 1879), Westland, South Canterbury, Dunedin, Southland, and Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905).
Decaying wood
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
This is a very common species of Stemonitis and usually can be distinguished on the basis of the bright rusty brown colour alone. Stemonitis smithii, a closely related species, has smaller sporangia (usually no more than 6 mm tall) and smaller spores (4–5 µm in diameter).
Stemonitis flavogenita E. Jahn 1904
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, fasciculate in small- or medium-sized clusters, 4–8 mm tall, occasionally taller. Sporotheca cylindrical, obtuse, reddish brown, becoming paler with the disappearance of the spores, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk sometimes short but often exceeding one-third the total height of the entire sporangium. Hypothallus membranous, varying from pallid through dull red to nearly black. Peridium fugacious. Columella ending abruptly just below the apex of the sporotheca, often with a membranous expansion at the tip. Capillitium a loose network with many membranous expansions, surface net delicate, the meshes uneven, mostly small, with many spine-like free ends, often falling away rather quickly, especially above. Spores rich brown by transmitted light, verruculose, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium yellow, pallid, or white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Macbride (1926), based on a specimen cited without naming a specific locality.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The distinguishing characteristics of this species are the membranous expansions in the capillitium.
Stemonitis fusca Roth 1787
PDD 28702, 50513, 68607.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, tufted and often in large clusters, 6–20 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, erect to sometimes drooping, slender, deep fuscous to dark reddish brown, becoming paler as the spores are dispersed, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk black, shining, rather long, from nearly one-half to one-quarter or less of the height of the entire sporangium. Hypothallus membranous, shining, colourless or brown. Peridium fugacious. Columella dark brown or black, reaching the apex of the sporotheca. Capillitium arising from all parts of the columella, branching and anastomosing freely, the ultimate branchlets united into a close-meshed surface net. Spores fuscous in mass, violet-brown by transmitted light, prominently to delicately warted-reticulate, 7.5–9.0 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Colenso (1887), based on a specimen from Hawkes Bay. Also known from Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Wellington, Nelson, Mid Canterbury, Dunedin (Lister & Lister 1905), and Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905).
Decaying wood and bark; less commonly plant debris and bryophytes.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The relatively tall, deep fuscous to dark purplish brown sporangia and reticulate spores are distinctive features of this species, which is very common throughout New Zealand. Stemonitis splendens is similar in appearance but often occurs in larger fruitings and has sporangia with a conspicuously large-meshed surface net and spores that are not reticulate. The concept of S. fusca used herein also encompasses those forms traditionally recognized as S. nigrescens. As pointed out by Castillo et al. (1997), there are not enough morphological differences to maintain the latter as a distinct species.
Stemonitis Gled. 1753
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely subsessile) sporangium, usually occurring in clusters. Sporotheca cylindrical, reddish or liliaceous brown to black. Stalk slender, smooth, black, usually shiny. Hypothallus membranous, usually contiguous for a group of sporangia, colourless and shining or silvery to brown. Peridium usually fugacious. Columella a continuation of the stalk, reaching at least to the middle of the sporotheca and often nearly to the apex. Capillitium arising from the entire length of the columella, with the branchlets merging into a surface net that is developed under the peridium. Spores dark brown to purplish brown or black, reddish brown or lilaceous.
Approximately 20 species have been described in the genus Stemonitis (Lado 2001), and nine of these are known from New Zealand.
Stemonitis herbatica Peck 1873
PDD 15900, 48507.
Fruiting body a stalked (or occasionally nearly sessile) sporangium, in small, gregarious clusters, 3–7 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, erect, obtuse, bright to dark reddish or purplish brown, 0.2 mm in diameter. Stalk short, usually no more than one-fifth of the height of the entire sporangium, black, only slightly expanded below. Hypothallus membranous, brown, usually inconspicuous. Peridium fugacious. Columella attenuated upwards, sometimes not reaching the apex of the sporotheca. Capillitium brown, the inner network moderately dense, often with some membranous expansions, surface net paler, the meshes small, polygonal. Spores dark purplish brown in mass, pale by transmitted light, minutely warted, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white to pale yellow.
Reported from numerous localities in North America and Europe; also known from Africa (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taranaki. Also known from Auckland, Gisborne, South Canterbury.
Living plants and various types of plant debris; occasionally occurring on decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
This species shares many features in common with Stemonitis flavogenita, and Farr (1976) suggested that it is possible that they represent different forms of the same taxonomic entity. However, the sporangia of S. herbatica typically have shorter stalks and fewer membranous expansions in the capillitium. Moreover, fruitings of S. herbatica usually occur on living plants, a substrate on which S. flavogenita is rarely found
Stemonitis mussooriensis G.W. Martin, K.S. Thind & Sohi 1957
DWM 3149.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, rather closely aggregated in large tufts, 1.5–3.0 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, black, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk short, erect, jet black, one-quarter to one-third the height of the entire sporangium, expanded at the base, gradually tapering upward. Hypothallus membranous, shining, silvery. Peridium fugacious. Columella prominent, thick, black, sparsely branched, tapering gradually upward, flexuous above, ending abruptly just below the obtuse apex of the sporotheca. Capillitium lax, composed of branching, tapering, flattened branches, these anastomosing with the surface net which has smaller meshes than those of the interior. Spores black in mass, violaceous brown by transmitted light, profusely and prominently spiny, 10.5–12.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
Described originally from Asia and now also known from Europe and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976, Nannenga-Bremekamp 1991). First reported from New Zealand by Mitchell (1992), based on a specimen appearing on bark samples placed in moist chamber culture. The bark samples were collected in Auckland.
Decaying wood and the bark of living trees.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991).
The distinguishing features of this apparently rare species are the very large meshes of the surface net and the relatively large (at least for a Stemonitis) spores.
Stemonitis pallida Wingate 1899
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, closely gregarious in large groups or in small gregarous clusters, 2–6 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, rather slender, somewhat obtuse, erect, dusky drab to violet-brown, becoming paler as the spores disappear, 0.2 mm in diameter. Stalk of medium length, one-third or a little more of the height of the entire sporangium, dark reddish or purplish brown, polished. Hypothallus membranous, brown or iridescent, discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium fugacious. Columella reaching almost to the apex of sporotheca where it becomes dispersed and merges into the capillitium. Capillitium dense, the tips fusing with the close-meshed surface net which tends to be fugacious above. Spores dark brown in mass, pale lilaceous brown by transmitted light, minutely punctate, 6.5–7.5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or greenish yellow.
Reported from eastern North America, Europe, and Asia (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on specimens collected in South Canterbury and Southland.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (2000).
Stemonitis pallida shares a number of features in common with both S. flavogenita and S. herbatica. It differs from the latter in the substrate upon which fruiting usually occurs (decaying wood rather than living plants and litter) and in having angular meshes in the surface net (in S. herbatica the meshes tend to be rounded). Stemonitis pallida lacks the numerous membranous expansions in the capillitium, which is characteristic of S. flavogenita.
Stemonitis smithii T. Macbr. 1893
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, occurring in small, closely packed clusters, 2.5–6.0 mm tall. Sporotheca subcylindrical, tapering to base and tip, erect, light cinnamon-drab to vinaceous fawn, 0.2 mm in diameter. Stalk jet black, shining, about two-fifths the height of the entire sporangium. Hypothallus shining, colorless to brown, contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium fugacious. Columella dark, becoming brown at the tip, gradually tapering and becoming dispersed into the capillitium some distance below the apex. Capillitium abundant, light brown, the threads of the interior sparingly united, the surface net delicate, the meshes small, regular, polygonal. Spores bright reddish brown in mass, pale brown or almost colourless by transmitted light, nearly smooth, 4–5 µm in diameter. Plasmodium reported as white or greenish yellow to reddish purple.
Recorded from Asia, Europe, North America, and South America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969, Farr 1976). First reported from New Zealand by Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) but without naming a specific locality.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
This species is considered as a variety of Stemonitis axifera in some taxonomic treatments. The two species are certainly very similar, with the primary difference being the overall smaller sporangia and smaller spores of S. smithii.
Stemonitis splendens Rostaf. 1874
PDD 34343, 35754, 63110.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, often forming large clusters, 7–15 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical, deep purplish brown to black, obtuse, rigid and more or less erect in the shorter clusters, ranging to flexuose and acuminate in the longer fruitings, sometime agglutinated, up to 0.5 mm in diameter. Stalk black, polished, 1–4 mm tall. Hypothallus membranous, silvery or somewhat purplish. Peridium fugacious. Columella reaching nearly to the apex, often coiled and tortuous toward the tip. Capillitium brown, often with notable coppery or bronze iridescence, arising from the columella by relatively few branches, the meshes open and the tips united with the large-meshed surface net, the meshes irregular and mostly 20–100 µm in diameter, the net incomplete or lacking in agglutinated fruitings. Spores purplish black in mass, yellowish or lilaceous brown by transmitted light, faintly or rarely prominently warted, 7–9 µm in diameter. Plasmodium pale yellow or white.
Reported as cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but probably more or less limited to temperate and tropical regions of the world. First reported from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen collected in the Bay of Plenty. Also known from Three Kings Islands, Auckland, Waikato, Nelson, Buller, South Canterbury, and Dunedin.
Decaying wood. It is often common on old, decaying logs of radiata pine
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The distinguishing features of this species are the large overall size of the sporangia and the large meshes of the surface net.
Stemonitis virginiensis Rex 1891
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, gregarious in small clusters, 2–6 mm tall. Sporotheca cylindrical to elongated-ovate, blunt or slightly acuminate above, erect, violaceous-brown, up to 0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk black, shining, 0.5–2.0 mm tall, one-quarter to one-third the height of the entire sporangium. Hypothallus membranous, reddish brown, contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium fugacious. Columella reaching the apex of the sporotheca, giving rise to a delicate capillitium, the ultimate branches united with the small-meshed surface net that tends to fall away above. Spores bright in mass, pale lilac-brown by transmitted light, marked by a sharp reticulation of narrow bands connecting prominent warts, 6–7 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from widely scattered localities in North America and Europe but never common (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in South Canterbury.
Decaying wood and bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
The combination of violaceous-brown sporangia and reticulate spores distinguish Stemonitis virginiensis
Stemonitopsis (Nann.-Bremek.) Nann.-Bremek. 1975 [1974]
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium. Sporotheca cylindrical. Stalk fibrous, usually shorter than the sporotheca, with a distinct expanded base. Hypothallus discoid or contiguous for a group of sporangia, often inconspicuous. Peridium usually fugacious, rarely persistent. Columella a continuation of the stalk, usually extending to near the apex of the sporotheca. Capillitium arising from the columella along its entire length, consisting of thread-like tubules, these forming a three-dimensional internal network and also sometimes giving rise to a partial surface net. Spores in mass rust-brown to brown or black.
This genus includes several species that were placed in the genera Comatricha and Stemonitis in earlier treatments of the myxomycetes.
Stemonitopsis hyperopta (Meyl.) Nann.-Bremek. 1975 [1974]
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, occurring in small, loose clusters, 2.5–5.0 mm tall. Sporotheca broadly cylindrical to elongated-ovate, erect, liliaceous brown, 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter. Stalk short, 0.1–0.5 mm tall, continued into the slender columella. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia but often thin and inconpicuous, colourless to reddish-brown. Peridium fugacious. Capillitium a network of slender, flexuous, brown threads, the ultimate branchlets united with the delicate surface net, which may be early fugacious above, persisting only over the lower half or two-thirds of the sporotheca. Spores lilac-brown in mass, pale lilac by transmitted light, warted and faintly but often incompletely banded-reticulate, 5–6 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Widespread in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, where it is usually associated with montane forests. First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on specimens collected in Dunedin and Southland.
Decaying wood, usually that of conifers.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
Distinguishing characteristics of this species are the pale, short-stalked sporangia usually occurring in small clusters and the faintly reticulate spores.
Stemonitopsis typhina (F.H. Wigg.) Nann.-Bremek. 1975 [1974]
PDD 17613, 28573.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered to gregarious, 2–5 mm high, erect. Sporotheca cylindrical to somewhat ovate and tapering above, erect, dark or purplish brown or occasionally grey, 0.2–0.6 mm in diameter. Stalk slender, dark red to nearly black, typically about half the total height of the sporangium, often covered with a silvery film. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, reddish-brown. Peridium membranous, silvery, usually persisting in mature fruiting bodies as scattered patches or sometimes as a shallow calyculus at the base of the sporotheca. Capillitium a dense network of pale brown threads with numerous anastomoses. Spores brown in mass, very pale lilac-brown by transmitted light, faintly punctate with scattered clusters of dark warts, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium translucently white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), although most common in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. First reported (as Stemonitis typhoides) from New Zealand by Berkeley (1855), based on a specimen collected by W. [and elsewhere]Colenso in Hawkes Bay. Colenso (1887) later reported the species from the same locality. Also known from Auckland, Wellington, Fiordland, Dunedin (Lister & Lister 1905), Southland, the Auckland Islands, and Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905). This is the most common species of Stemnitopsis in New Zealand.
Decaying wood and (less commonly) bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
The clusters of dark warts on the spores are usually quite evident and make this a relatively easy species to identify.
Symphytocarpus amaurochaetoides Nann.-Bremek. 1967
None in PDD.
Fruiting body a pseudoaethalium consisting of partially merged sporangia, black or sometimes dark brown or dark purple-brown, 5–50 mm in diameter and 5 mm high. Hypothallus thin and raised around the bases of the merged sporangia into an irregular net of narrow, low ridges, colourless or pale brown, with a silvery shine. Peridium completely fugacious, not leaving any plates adhering to the capillitium. Columella absent or irregular and sometimes split, often present or absent within different parts of the same pseudoaethalium. Capillitium consisting of a system of threads, these thick and dark, forming a wide meshed reticulum with some expanded portions and with short, stiff, free ends at the periphery. Spores dark brown in mass, lilac-brown in transmitted light, banded-spiny reticulate, 8–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Reported from Europe (Ing 1999) but uncommon. First reported (as Stemonitis fusca var. flaccida) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen from Dunedin.
Decaying wood, usually that from broadleaf trees
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
This species has been considered as a variety of Stemonitis fusca in some taxonomic treatments of the myxomycetes, and the spores of Symphytocarpus amaurochaetoides and S. fusca are very similar.
Symphytocarpus flaccidus (Lister) Ing & Nann.-Bremek. 1967
None in PDD
Fruiting body a pseudoaethalium consisting of partially merged sporangia, the entire structure pulvinate or truncate-pyramidal, 0.7–1.5 cm tall and up to 5.0 cm in diameter, rust coloured, red-brown or brown, the separate sporangia cylindrical and about 0.5 mm in diameter. Hypothallus thin, sometimes somewhat spongy, red-brown with a silvery shine. Peridium on the outside of a group of sporangia fugacious except for the thickened, irregularly spaced plates that are not connected to the capillitium, the plates smooth, red-brown, usually with thickened margins that fray into fine threads. Columella usually present, rather irregular in shape and variable in thickness, often bent or split, sometimes united to each other at the base or higher up, red-brown. Capillitium connected at the apex of the columella if the latter is present, sometime absent but usually present as a wide meshed reticulum with some expanded portions and free ends at the periphery, sometimes poorly developed and then falling away early with the spores. Spores red-brown in mass, pale red-brown in transmitted light, minutely to very minutely warted, 7–10 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or translucent lemon yellow.
Reported from widely scattered localities in North America and Europe; also recorded from Australia (Mitchell 1995). First reported from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen from South Canterbury.
Decaying wood, usually from pine (Pinus spp.) but also occurring on other conifers.
Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999), Neubert et al. (2000).
Fruitings of Symphytocarpus flaccidus have the general appearance and colour of large and rather compact masses of sporangia of Stemonitis splendens. Both are considered to represent different forms of the same species in some taxonomic treatments of the myxomycetes.
Symphytocarpus Ing & Nann.-Bremek. 1967
Fruiting body a pseudoaethalium, consisting of partially merged sporangia; sporangia sessile or almost sessile, cylindrical, with hollow, rarely flat, horny, regular or irregular columellae, which are sometimes absent. Peridium fugacious but usually leaving behind some plate-like fragments, which may be connected to the capillitium or hang free. Columella usually dark, branched and/or reticulate, often with axillary membranes with bulbous expansions, with a surface net, the latter sometimes scanty, usually looped and/or without free ends on the surface. Spores dark in mass.
Five species have been described for this genus (Lado 2001), and two of these have been recorded from New Zealand.
Trichia botrytis (J.F. Gmel.) Pers. 1794
PDD 16114, 75876, CHSC50098.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium (rarely sessile or subplasmodiocarpous), often clustered on united stalks, 1–4 mm tall. Sporotheca turbinate or pyriform, dull olive-yellow to reddish or purplish brown, sometimes almost black, 0.6–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical, dull yellow or dark reddish brown or purplish brown, opaque, filled with amorphous material. Hypothallus usually contiguous for a group of sporangia, membranous, colourless to dark brown. Peridium consisting of two layers, the inner layer membranous, the outer composed or dark granular thickenings, sometime lacking, often separating before dehiscence and forming areolae separated by the lighter inner wall, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium dull yellow to dingy ochraceous brown in mass, elaters simple or sometimes branched, bearing 3–5 smooth spirals, 4–5 µm in diameter at the centre and tapering gradually to the long, slender, acuminate tips. Spores dull yellow to dingy ochraceous brown in mass, pale by transmitted light, minutely warted, 9–11 µm in diameter. Plasmodium purple-brown.
Widely distributed in temperate regions (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Trichia fragilis) from New Zealand by Cooke (1879), based on a specimen collected in Southland. Also known from Bay of Plenty (Cheesman & Lister 1915), Buller, South Canterbury (Rawson 1937), and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969); Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991); Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species is somewhat similar morphologically to both Trichia decipiens and Metatrichia floriformis. However, it differs from the former in having a tough and rather dull peridium (the peridium of T. decipiens is membranous and shining) and from the latter in having an opaque stalk and a yellow-brown to dark ochraceous spore mass (in T. floriformis the stalk is translucent and the spore mass brick red to brownish orange).
Trichia contorta (Ditmar) Rostaf. 1875
PDD 74929
Fruiting body a sessile (or very rarely short-shalked) sporangium, closely gregarious to scattered, pulvinate or occasionally short-plasmodiocarpous, dull yellowish brown to dark reddish brown, occasionally almost black, 0.5–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk, when present, black. Hypothallus membranous, colourless to brown, often inconspicuous. Peridium membranous or cartilaginous, more or less thickened with granular material. Capillitium ochraceous or dull yellow, the elaters simple or sometimes branched, 3–5 µm in diameter, bearing 4 or 5 even or irregular spiral bands, smooth or spiny or with long, spine-like processes, the tips often more or less swollen and with one or two curved spines present. Spores bright ochraceous in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, minutely spiny, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery white.
Widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). Not reported in print as occurring in New Zealand but known from specimens collected in Taupo, Westland and Fiordland..
Decaying wood or bark; occasionally fruiting on dead leaves, other types of plant debris, and bryophytes.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969); Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991); Neubert et al. (1993), Lado and Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Trichia contorta is a highly variable species in which a number of varieties have been recognized (Lado & Pando 1997). However, it can be distinguished from other sessile species of Trichia by the dull yellow-brown to brown colour of mature fruiting bodies, the often rather irregular spiral bands on the elaters, and the spine-like processes sometimes found at the tips of elaters. Interestingly, T. contorta is not uncommon in alpine habitats, although it is not a member of the special ecological group of “snowbank” myxomycetes associated with such habitats in late spring and early summer (Stephenson & Johnston 2003).
Trichia crateriformis G.W. Martin 1963
BPI 835163
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered, 0.8–1.5 mm tall. Sporotheca obovate to subconical, flattened above, 0.5–1.5 mm broad, sharply divided between a basal cup and an operculum, the cup membranous, more or less furrowed. Stalk short, usually less than half the total height of the sporangium. Hypothallus inconspicuous. Peridium umber brown, shining except for the dull coloured operculum. Capillitium ample, brownish ochraceous, yellow by transmitted light, the filaments uniformly 7–8 µm in diameter, except at the tips, bearing 4 or 5 prominent spirals with few or no spines, the tips long-tapering, the filaments often bent in the middle and the two halves spirally twisted about each other. Spores globose or ovoid, yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, warted, 11–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium unknown.
This apparently very rare species was described originally from a specimen collected in Mid Canterbury (Martin 1962) and has been reported from only a few other localities worldwide (Frederick et al. 1983). Arambarri (1975) reported several collections from Tierra del Fuego, which at least suggests that the species has a distribution centred in high-latitude regions of the Southern Hemisphere.
Decaying wood.
Martin (1962), Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Arambarri (1975).
This species is the only member of the genus Trichia to have a clearly discernible preformed operculum and can be recognised by this feature alone.
Trichia decipiens (Pers.) T. Macbr. 1899
PDD 74933, 74941, 74946
Fruiting body a stalked (or rarely sessile) sporangium, gregarious to crowded, up to 3 mm tall. Sporotheca turbinate to pyriform, dull yellow to olivaceous yellow or brown, 0.6–0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk cylindrical, furrowed, dark brown below and paler above, up to 1 mm long, filled with spore-like cysts. Hypothallus membranous, colourless or brown. Peridium firm or membranous, yellow, often translucent when thin, persisting below as a deep (or sometimes rather shallow) calyculus. Capillitium consisting of free elaters, these olivaceus yellow, simple or branched, bearing 3 to 5 spiral bands, smooth, 5–6 µm in diameter, tapering gradually to the long slender tips. Spores olivaceous yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, delicately reticulate, 10–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or rose-coloured.
Apparently cosmopolitan, but predominately a species associated with coniferous forests of the Northern Hemisphere, but also known from South America (Arambarri (1975) and Australia (Mitchell 1995). First reported (as Trichia fallax) from New Zealand by Oliver (1911), based on a specimen collected in the Kermadec Islands. Also known from Auckland (Cheesman & Lister 1915), Bay of Plenty, Wanganui, Fiordland, Mid Canterbury, Dunedin, Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905), and Campbell Island.
Decaying wood.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
This species is easily recognised by the shining, olivaceous and membranous peridium and translucent stalk filled with spore-like cysts. No other stalked species of Trichia has both of these features.
Trichia erecta Rex 1890
PDD 68776.
Fruiting body a stalked sporangium, scattered or loosely gregarious and sometimes in clusters of two or three, 1.0–2.6 mm tall. Sporotheca globose or turbinate, nut-brown, 0.5–0.7 mm in diameter, the upper portion often displaying broad yellow bands arranged in a reticulate pattern. Stalk cylindrical, stout, 0.1–1.0 mm high and 0.2–0.3 mm thick, dark brown, opaque. Hypothallus usually discoid and inconspicuous but sometimes contiguous for a group of sporangia. Peridium consisting of two layers, nut-brown, the upper portion of the sporotheca displaying conspicuous yellow bands arranged in a reticulate pattern, with the latter representing the membranous and translucent inner layer of the peridium, and the darker portions delimited by these bands constituting the granular thickenings that make up the outer layer of the peridium. Capillitium bright yellow to orange-yellow, elaters cylindrical, with short tapering ends, 3.5–4.0 µm in diameter, bearing four spirals marked with short and sometimes scattered spines. Spores bright yellow to orange-yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, minutely warted, 11–13 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Predominantly a myxomycete of coniferous forests of North America (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) and only rarely reported elsewhere (Nannenga-Bremekamp 1991). First reported from New Zealand by Cheeseman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen collected in Bay of Plenty. Also known from Dunedin.
Decaying wood and dead bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969); Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997).
Although the general aspect of Trichia erecta is similar to that of T. botrytis, the former is smaller and has a brighter coloured spore mass as well as elaters with short tapering tips (the elaters of T. botrytis have long tapering tips).
Trichia favoginea (Batsch) Pers. 1794
PDD 15944, 17568, 17580.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, usually densely crowded but occasionally gregarious, subglobose to ovate, to clavate or cylindrical, bright yellow-brown, more or less shining, 0.5–1.0 mm in diameter and up to 2 mm tall. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, membranous, transparent to colourless. Peridium membranous, transparent, yellow, nearly smooth. Capillitium yellow, consisting of free elaters 4–8 µm in diameter, marked with 3 to 5 smooth to spinulose spiral bands, tips of elaters pointed, blunt, or rounded and spinulose. Spores yellow to ochraceous or orange in mass, pale to bright yellow by transmitted light, coarsely reticulate, 13–15 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white or yellow.
Widely distributed in temperate regions of both hemispheres and in montane regions of the tropics (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported (as Trichia affinis) from New Zealand by Colenso (1892), based on a specimen collected in Wairarapa/Rangitikei. Also known from the Kermadec Islands, Auckland, Coromandel, Waikato, Wellington, Nelson Westland, South Canterbury, Dunedin, Southland, Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905), and Campbell Island.
Decaying wood or bark; occasionally fruiting on leaf litter or soil; in New Zealand not uncommon on decaying fronds of nikau palm.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Ing (1999).
The coarsely reticulate spores distinguish Trichia favoginea from all other species of Trichia that produce sessile sporangia. Trichia verrucosa, with similar spores, is almost always stalked. It should be noted that T. favoginea is best considered a species complex (Farr 1958), and the number of taxonomic entities recognised varies among different authors. Martin & Alexopoulos (1969) considered T. favoginea as a single variable species that encompasses two other species (T. affinis and T. persimilis) usually recognised as distinct by most European authors (e.g., Nannenga-Bremekamp 1991, Ing 1999). Although the former concept is the one followed herein, typical expressions of T. persimilis and T. affinis do appear to be sufficiently distinct to be readily identifiable. Both are characterized by sporangia that are globose to subglobose, whereas those of T. favoginea are more or less cylindrical. Moreover, T. favoginea has larger elaters (usually 6–8 µm in diameter as opposed to 4–6 µm for T. persimilis and T. affinis) and the reticulations on the spores are somewhat different (Farr 1958). Trichia persimilis and T. affinis can be separated on the basis of the latter having smaller and more complete reticulations on the spores, and the former usually occurring on wood at a much earlier stage of decomposition (Ing 1999). As pointed out by Mitchell (1992), these morphological and ecological distinctions do not seem especially apparent for specimens from New Zealand, although forms that would be considered as absolutely typical for T. favoginea do not appear to be particularly common (Stephenson, unpub. data).
Trichia Haller 1768
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium (or sometimes plasmodiocarpous). Peridium either membranous or rather thick and often with inclusions, sometimes consisting of two layers. Capillitium elastic, consisting of free elaters, these sometimes branched, the free ends pointed. Spores yellow, yellow-brown or brown.
The genus Trichia contains approximately 30 species worldwide (Lado 2001). Nine species are known from New Zealand.
Trichia lutescens (Lister) Lister 1897
PDD 15946, 15950, 17607.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, scattered or crowded within small clusters, globose to irregularly pulvinate, shining olivaceous to bright yellow, 0.15–0.70 mm in diameter. Hypothallus ranging from contiguous for a group of sporangia to often inconspicuous, membranous, very thin, colourless to light brown. Peridium membranous, translucent, without granular deposits, usually embossed with the impressions of the spores, yellow or nearly colourless. Capillitium consisting of pale yellow to medium olivaceous yellow, simple or branched elaters, 3.0–4.5 µm in diameter, bearing 4 or 5 smooth, close, sometimes faint spiral bands, with tapering or blunt and bulbous tips. Spores bright yellow to medium olivaceous yellow in mass, pale yellow by transmitted light, 10–12 µm in diameter, densely and sometimes unevenly warted or spiny. Plasmodium watery pink.
This rarely collected species has been reported from widely scattered localities in the Northern Hemisphere (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969), and is apparently most common at high latitudes (Stephenson et al. 2000). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from Nelson and Buller.
Decaying wood; also occurring on plant debris placed in moist chamber culture.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The thin, delicate and translucent peridium, elaters with tightly wound and smooth spiral bands, and distinctly warted or spinulose spores distinguish Trichia lutescens from all other sessile species in the genus
Trichia scabra Rostaf. 1875
PDD 6343, 17578, 74400.
Fruiting body a sessile sporangium, crowded, globose or turbinate, dull orange or golden brown, 0.5–0.7 mm in diameter. Hypothallus well-developed, contiguous for a group of sporangia, membranous, colourless to more commonly brown. Peridium delicate, smooth, shining. Capillitium deep yellow to rusty orange, the elaters simple, long, 5–6 µm in width, bearing 3 or 4 closely wound, regular, spinulose spiral bands, the apices short, acuminate. Spores yellow or orange in mass, yellow by transmitted light, the surface marked by a delicate, fine-meshed reticulum, 10–12 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Apparently cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Rawson (1937), based on a specimen collected in Southland. Also known from Auckland and South Canterbury.
Decaying wood or bark.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The orange-yellow spore mass, elaters with densely spinulose spiral bands, and faintly reticulate spores are the most important characteristics that can be used to separate Trichia scabra from other members of the genus that produce sessile sporangia.
Trichia varia (Pers. ex J.F. Gmel.) Pers. 1794
PDD 3640, 21160, 68791.
Fruiting body a sessile (or occasionally short-stalked) sporangium, gregarious to crowded, globose or obovate to somewhat elongated, yellow to olive-brown to yellow-brown, 0.5–0.9 mm in diameter. Peridium persistent, membranous, shining or sometimes encrusted with darker material. Capillitium yellow to ochraceous, consisting of relatively long, free elaters, 3–5 µm in diameter, bearing 2 (or rarely 3) prominent, widely spaced spiral bands, tips acute, curved, about twice the diameter of the elater in length. Spores yellow to orange-yellow in mass, dull yellow by transmitted light, delicately warted, 12–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969). First reported from New Zealand by Cooke (1879), based on a specimen collected in Dunedin. Also known from Bay of Plenty, Wellington, Gisborne, Hawkes Bay (Colenso 1887), Buller, Nelson, Fiordland, Mid Canterbury, Otago Lakes, and Southland.
Decaying wood, usually that of broadleaf trees.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson & Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
The single most important distinguishing feature of Trichia varia is the capillitium, which is made up of elaters with widely spaced sprial bands that protrude more on one side than the other.
Trichia verrucosa Berk. 1859 [1860]
PDD 37148, 39298, 72335
Fruiting body a stalked (or very rarely sessile) sporangium, several clustered on a united stalk, gregarious to scattered, up to 4 mm tall. Sporotheca pyriform or obovoid, bright yellow to ochraceous, up to 0.8 mm in diameter. Stalk thick, rugose, ofen flattened or procumbent, yellow-brown to dark reddish brown, translucent above and dark below, up to 2 mm long. Hypothallus contiguous for a group of sporangia, conspicuous, usually horny but sometimes membranous, colourless to dark brown. Peridium membranous, translucent, often somewhat thickened by granular deposits, dehiscence apical, leaving a cup- or vase-shaped base with the margin irregular or divided into petaloid lobes. Capillitium bright ochraceous yellow, consisting of free elaters 4-8 µm in diameter, marked with 3–5 spirals, these smooth or bearing a few scattered spines, with short, tapering tips. Spores bright ochraceous in mass, bright yellow by transmitted light, coarsely and prominently reticulate, 12–16 µm in diameter. Plasmodium white.
Widely distributed throughout temperate regions of the world (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but rare in the Northern Hemisphere and exceedingly common in the Southern Hemisphere. First reported from New Zealand by Colenso (1891), based on a specimen collected in Hawkes Bay. Also known from Auckland, Taranaki (Lister & Lister 1905), Taupo, Wellington, Buller, Westland, Fiordland, North Canterbury, South Canterbury, Dunedin, Southland, Stewart Island (Lister & Lister 1905), and Campbell Island, but undoubtedly present elsewhere.
Decaying wood or bark; occasionally fruiting on bryophytes.
& Alexopoulos (1969), Neubert et al. (1993), Ing (1999).
Trichia verrucosa is one of the most commonly encountered myxomycetes in the forests of New Zealand. Interestingly, it is rare in forests of the Northern Hemisphere (Farr 1958). Sporangia of this species are often colonised by the fungus Polycephalomyces tomentosus.
Trichiaceae Chevall. 1826
Fruiting body a stalked or sessile sporangium or (less commonly) a plasmodiocarp. Capillitium consisting of tubular threads sculptured in a characteristic fashion or nearly smooth, simple, branched or united into a net, free or attached at the base. Spores white or bright-coloured in mass.
This is the largest family of myxomycetes and contains 10 genera, five of which are known from New Zealand.
Trichiales T. Macbr. 1922
Members of the Trichiales are usually fairly easy to recognise. The spore mass is typically more or less brightly coloured (rarely grey or light brown), a characteristic shared with few other myxomycetes. Most species in the order produce a stalked or sessile sporangium, but a few produce a plasmodiocarp. None of these ever has a columella. A capillitium consisting of solid or tubular, smooth or sculptured, free or attached threadlike elements is always present, but in some instances it may be so limited in extent as to be easily overlooked. The order contains three families: Arcyriaceae, Dianemataceae, and Trichiaceae.
Tubifera ferruginosa (Batsch) J.F. Gmel. 1792
PDD 4784, 18280
Fruiting body a pseudoaethalium composed of numerous sessile sporangia crowded together, individual sporangia cylindrical to ovate, pale umber to reddish brown or purplish brown, up to 0.4 mm in diameter and 5 mm tall, the entire structure reaching 15 cm or more in extent. Hypothallus well developed, membranous to spongy, colourless or pallid. Peridium membranous, thin, persisting in mature fruiting bodies except at the apices of the individual sporangia, where it tends to break away. Spores umber-brown in mass, pallid by transmitted light, finely reticulate over about three-quarters of the surface, 6–8 µm in diameter. Plasmodium watery and colourless upon emergence, becoming milky white, and then changing through rose to brown in fruiting.
Cosmopolitan and reported from areas of the world ranging from high-latitude boreal forest/tundra to the tropics. First reported (as Tubulina fragiformis) from New Zealand by Lister & Lister (1905), based on a specimen collected in Taranaki. Also known from Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Wanganui, Gisborne, Marlborough Sounds, Southland (Rawson 1937), and Stewart Island.
Decaying wood or wood debris; occasionally occurring on forest floor leaf litter.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Neubert et al. (1993), Stephenson and Stempen (1994), Lado & Pando (1997), Ing (1999).
Because of its relatively large size and distinctive structure, this species is not likely to be confused with any other myxomycete. Like Reticularia lycoperdon, mature fruiting bodies of Tubifera ferruginosa are sometimes invaded by small beetles that feed upon the spore mass. Lado (2001) pointed out that the generic name
Tubifera J.F. Gmel. 1792
Fruiting body a pseudoaethalium consisting of densely massed, cylindrical to ellipsoid sporangia, umber to dark brown. Hypothallus spongy, sometimes forming a stout, stalk-like structure. Peridium membranous, persistent except at the apices of the individual sporangia. Pseudocapillitium sparse or absent. Spores light yellow-brown to cocoa-brown or rust-brown in mass, at least partially (but usually faintly) reticulate.
Seven different species of Tubifera have been described (Lado 2001), but only one of these (Tubifera ferruginosa) has been reported from New Zealand. Some species of Tubifera are characterised by a pseudoaethalium that is elevated on a stalk-like hypothallus, but this is not the case for T. ferruginosa.
Willkommlangea Kuntze 1891
Fruiting body a plasmodiocarp, these often broken up into pulvinate sporangia or sometimes massed to form a pseudoaethalium. Hypothallus usually inconspicuous. Peridium cartilaginous, more or less densely encrusted with lime, dehiscence irregular. Capillitium of two types, the first consisting of a series of calcareous plates that divide the plasmodiocarp into segments and the second represented by a network of slender, anastomosing threads bearing a few calcareous nodes and numerous short, sharp-pointed branchlets. Spores dark in mass.
This is a monotypic genus and contains only the single species Willkommlangea reticulata (Lado 2001).
Willkommlangea reticulata (Alb. & Schwein.) Kuntze 1891
PDD 16131, 16358.
Fruiting body a stalked or nearly sessile sporangium, gregarious or clustered, short-cylindrical to obovate to subglobose, 0.6–1.6 mm in diameter and 2–4 mm tall. Stalk weak, often flattened, pale yellow or ochraceous, essentially representing an extension of the hypothallus. Hypothallus membranous, colourless, usually inconspicous. Peridium smooth, shining, brittle, consisting of three layers, the outer layer cartilaginous, pale yellow to ochraceous to chestnut brown or deep maroon, the middle layer calcareous, and the inner layer membranous, hyaline, dehiscence longitudinal or irregular. Capillitium of two types, the first consisting of slender, colourless, flattened tubules usually expanded at the junctions and the second represented by a series of transverse plates that divide the interior of the plasmodiocarp into segments. Spores black in mass, brown by transmitted light, with a paler area at one side, coarsely warted, 12–14 µm in diameter. Plasmodium orange or red.
Cosmopolitan (Martin & Alexopoulos 1969) but not particularly common. First reported (as Cienkowskia reticulata) from New Zealand by Cheesman & Lister (1915), based on a specimen from Bay of Plenty. Also known from Northland, Auckland, and Dunedin (Rawson 1937).
Forest floor litter and wood debris; sometimes fruiting on living plants.
Martin & Alexopoulos (1969), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1991), Ing (1999).
This rather distinctive, but not especially common species is usually listed as Cienkowskia reticulata in earlier treatments of the myxomycetes. Many fruitings are characterized by the presence of "red spots" on the peridium.

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